Spectral composition and visual foraging in the three‐spined stickleback (Gasterosteidae: Gasterosteus aculeatus L.): elucidating the role of ultraviolet wavelengths

Visual signalling can be affected by both the intensity and spectral distribution of environmental light. In shallow aquatic habitats, the spectral range available for visually mediated behaviour, such as foraging, can reach from ultraviolet (UV) to long wavelengths in the human visible range. However, the relative importance of different wavebands in foraging behaviour is generally unknown. Here, we test how the spectral composition of ambient light influences the behaviour of three‐spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) when foraging for live cladoceran Daphnia magna. Although paying particular attention to the UV waveband, we measured the foraging preferences of sticklebacks for prey presented under four different spectral conditions. These conditions selectively removed UV (UV–), short‐wave (SW–), mid‐wave (MW–) or long‐wave (LW–) light from the entire spectrum. The absence of UV and long wavelengths strongly reduced prey attractiveness for G. aculeatus compared with conditions without short‐wave and mid‐wave light. To control for potential light habitat preferences in the main experiment, we conducted a further choice experiment without prey stimuli. Fish in these trials did not discriminate significantly between the different spectral conditions. When comparing both experiments, it was observed that, although filter preferences for MW– and LW– conditions were virtually consistent, they differed at shorter wavelengths, with a reduced preference for UV– conditions and, at the same time, an increased preference for SW– conditions in the presence of prey. Thus, prey choice seems to be strongly affected by visual information at the short‐wave end of the spectrum. The foraging preferences were also mirrored by the chromatic contrast values between prey and the experimental background, as calculated for each lighting condition using a series of physiological models on stickleback perception. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 359–368.     

Developmental genetics of leaf morphogenesis in dicotyledonous plants

A full understanding of the leaf is essential for a full understanding of plant morphology. However, leaf morphogenesis is still poorly understood, in particular in dicotyledonous plants, because of the complex nature of the development of leaves. Mutational analysis seems to be the most suitable strategy for investigations of such processes, and should allow us to dissect the developmental pathways into genetically programmed unit processes. The techniques of developmental genetics have been applied to the study of leaf morphogenesis in model plants, such asArabidopsis thaliana, and several key processes in leaf morphogenesis have been identified. The fundamental processes in leaf morphogenesis include the identification of leaf organs, determination of leaf primordia (occurrence of marginal meristem), and the polar or non-polar elongation of leaf cells. This review will focus on the genes that are essential for these processes and have been identified in mutational analyses. Mutational analyses of the photomorphogenesis is also briefly summarized from the perspective of the plasticity of leaf morphogenesis.     

Photosynthesis in localised regions of oat leaves infected with crown rust (Puccinia coronata): quantitative imaging of chlorophyll fluorescence

Localised changes in photosynthesis in oat leaves infected with the biotrophic rust fungus Puccinia coronata Corda were examined at different stages of disease development by quantitative imaging of chlorophyll fluorescence. Following inoculation of oat leaves with crown rust the rate of whole-leaf gas exchange declined. However, crown rust formed discrete areas of infection which expanded as the disease progressed and these localised regions of infection gave rise to heterogeneous changes in photosynthesis. To quantify these changes, images of chlorophyll fluorescence were taken 5, 8 and 11 d after inoculation and used to calculate images representing two parameters; Φ_II, a measure of PSII photochemical efficiency and ΔFm/Fm′, a measure of non-photochemical energy dissipation (qN). Five days after inoculation, disease symptoms appeared as yellow flecks which were correlated with the extent of the fungal mycelium within the leaf. At this stage, Δ_II was slightly reduced in the infected regions but, in uninfected regions of the leaf, values of Φ_II were similar to those of healthy leaves. In contrast, qN (ΔFm/Fm′) was greatly reduced throughout the infected leaf in comparison to healthy leaves. We suggest that the low value of qN in an infected leaf reflects a high demand for ATP within these leaves. At sporulation, 8 d after inoculation, Φ_II was reduced throughout the infected leaf although the reduction was most marked in areas invaded by fungal mycelium. In the infected leaf the pattern of non-photochemical quenching was complex; qN was low within invaded regions, perhaps reflecting high metabolic activity, but was now much higher in uninfected regions of the infected leaf, in comparison to healthy leaves. Eleven days after inoculation “green islands” formed in regions of the leaf associated with the fungal mycelium. At this stage, photosynthesis was severely inhibited over the entire leaf; however, heterogeneity was still apparent. In the region not invaded by the fungal mycelium, Φ_II and qN were very low and these regions of the leaf were highly fluorescent, indicating that the photosynthetic apparatus was severely damaged. In the greenisland tissue, Φ_II was low but detectable, indicating that some photosynthetic processes were still occurring. Moreover, qN was high and fluorescence low, indicating that the cells in this region were not dead and were capable of significant quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence.     

Effects of targeting eye color in Tenebrio molitor through RNA interference of tryptophan 2,3‐dioxygenase (vermilion): Implications for insect farming

The gene vermilion encodes tryptophan 2,3‐dioxygenase, part of the ommochrome pathway, and is responsible for the dark pigmented eyes in some insects, including beetles. Using RNA interference, we targeted the vermilion gene ortholog in embryos and pupae of the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, resulting in larvae and adults, respectively, that lacked eye pigment. RNA‐Seq was used to analyze the impact of vermilion‐specific RNA interference on gene expression. There was a 425‐fold reduction in vermilion gene expression (p = 0.0003), as well as significant (p < 0.05) differential expression of 109 other putative genes, most of which were downregulated. Enrichment analysis of Gene Ontology terms found in the differentially expressed data set included genes known to be involved in the ommochrome pathway. However, enrichment analysis also revealed the influence of vermilion expression on genes involved in protein translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum, signal transduction, G‐protein‐coupled receptor signaling, cell‐cycle arrest, mannose biosynthesis, and vitamin transport. These data demonstrate that knockdown of vermilion in T. molitor results in complete loss of eye color (white‐eyed phenotype) and identify other interrelated genes in the vermilion metabolic pathway. Therefore, a dominant marker system based on eye color can be developed for the genetic manipulation of T. molitor to increase the value of mealworms as an alternative food source by decreasing negative traits, such as disease susceptibility, and increasing desired traits, such as protein content and vitamin production.     

冰菜盐胁迫下的转录组分析

为了解冰菜(Mesembryanthemum crystallinum)叶片抗盐相关基因组学,利用Illumina Hi-seq TM2500高通量测序技术研究冰菜叶片在400 mmol L~(–1) NaCl胁迫下转录组基因的差异表达。结果表明,从400 mmol L~(–1) NaCl胁迫和对照的冰菜叶片中共获得13.01 Gb Clean data,Q30碱基均大于90.08%。共获得123个差异表达基因(DEGs),包括73个上调基因,50个下调基因,其中功能注释的基因有96个。根据Unigene库序列进行GO、COG和KEGG注释,筛选出8个与抗盐性相关差异表达基因,植物激素代谢相关基因,脱落酸8'-羟基化酶、吲哚-3-乙酰酸酰胺合成酶和茉莉酮酸酯ZIM结构域蛋白基因均下调表达,生长素响应蛋白、细胞分裂素合酶基因则上调表达,糖代谢相关基因棉子糖合成酶基因上调表达,质膜H+-ATPase基因上调表达,脱水蛋白基因下调表达。这为冰菜耐盐基因组学和分子生物学的研究奠定基础。     

不同成熟度树葡萄叶片中类黄酮合成转录组基因分析

为了解树葡萄(Myrciaria cauliflora)类黄酮合成相关酶差异表达基因信息,对其幼叶和成熟叶进行全转录组测序并比较分析。结果表明,从树葡萄幼叶和成熟叶中获得59 321条单基因簇(Unigenes),在8大数据库共注释到32 912条Unigenes信息,其中类黄酮合成代谢相关酶基因77个,在成熟叶片中显著下调表达的基因6个,包括2个CHI、1个CHS、1个F3H、1个2-羟基异黄酮脱水酶基因和1个ANS。5个差异表达基因经qRT-PCR验证的结果与转录组测序结果相符合。因此,树葡萄叶片中含有大量不同种类黄酮合成代谢相关酶家族基因,成熟叶片中类黄酮含量显著减少是由于少量相关基因显著下调。     

金花茶组植物花色与细胞内重要环境因子的关系

为研究金花茶组植物花色与细胞内重要环境因子的关系,该研究以花色不同的8个金花茶组物种的9个居群为材料,测定了其花瓣的颜色、总黄酮含量、含水量、细胞pH、7种金属离子浓度。结果表明:所测金花茶组植物的花色平均明度L~*为80.82、色相a~*为-2.88、色相b~*为53.97、彩度C~*为54.10、色相角h为93.19°,故金花茶花色为明度较亮的黄色,其中色相b~*为描述黄色的主要指标,据此可将所测植物分为金黄、黄、浅黄3类。花瓣总黄酮含量为20.17%,花瓣含水量为88.14%,物种间均达到差异显著,且均与花色呈弱相关,对黄色呈现影响较小。花瓣细胞偏弱酸性,pH平均值为6.19,不同物种间差异显著,细胞pH与花色呈显著正相关,即中偏弱酸性细胞环境有利于金花茶花瓣黄色的呈现。金属离子浓度中,K~+含量最高(12.61 mg·g~(-1)),其他依次为Ca2+(3.91 mg·g~(-1))、Mg~(2+)(1.28 mg·g~(-1))、Al~(3+)(0.98 mg·g~(-1))、Na~+(0.17mg·g~(-1))、Fe~(3+)(0.07 mg·g~(-1)),Cu~(2+)含量最低(0.003 8 mg·g~(-1)),7种金属离子在所测植物间均存在显著差异,其中Al~(3+)、Fe~(3+)和Ca~(2+)对金花茶黄色花的形成具有不同程度的干扰作用,随着这3种金属离子浓度升高,黄度降低,花色变淡。因此,较低浓度的Al~(3+)、Fe~(3+)、Ca~(2+)可能更有利于金花茶黄色花的呈现。     

不同基因型砧木嫁接黄瓜结瓜盛期光合特性的比较

采用CIRAS-Ⅱ型便携式光合作用系统,对黑籽南瓜和新培育的白籽南瓜A22种不同基因型砧木嫁接黄瓜结瓜盛期的光合特性进行比较。结果表明：在结瓜盛期,2种砧木嫁接黄瓜不同叶位的叶片净光合速率均有一定差异,其中A2嫁接黄瓜中部和下部叶片的净光舍速率显著高于黑籽南瓜嫁接的黄瓜。A2与黑籽南瓜相比其嫁接黄瓜利用光能范围较广且光饱和时净光合速率、RuBP最大再生速率和表观量子效率分别高出黑籽南瓜嫁接的黄瓜23．2％、12．6％和8．2％。2种砧木嫁接的黄瓜CO2饱和点与羧化效率均相近,CO2补偿点A2低于黑籽南瓜嫁接的黄瓜。A2嫁接黄瓜叶片叶绿素a、b及叶绿素总量均明显高于黑籽南瓜嫁接的黄瓜,可溶性蛋白含量与黑籽南瓜嫁接的黄瓜差异不显著。A2嫁接黄瓜的雌花节率和平均单株产量分别高出黑籽南瓜嫁接的黄瓜25．2％和29．4％,A2嫁接黄瓜果实可溶性糖、可溶性蛋白和VC含量分别高出黑籽南瓜嫁接的黄瓜6.3％、15,2％和15．4％。     

On the blue coloration of vertebrates†

Although the various vertebrate classes, from fishes to mammals are each distinctive, they possess many common features making it important to understand their comparative biology. One general feature that has long commanded interest is the integumental pigmentary system. Thus, much is known about particular pigment cells; however, the basis for some specific colors, such as blue, has escaped the scrutiny of the comparative approach. Regardless of Class, blue is almost always a structural color based upon incoherent or coherent scatter of blue wavelengths from the animal surface. The source of scatter may be intracellular or extra‐cellular. A main intracellular scatterer is the surface of reflecting platelets of iridophores of lower vertebrates. Extra‐cellular scatter is widespread and thought to occur from ordered dermal collagen arrays in primitive fishes, birds and mammals including humans. Among birds, feather structures provide major means for extra‐cellular light scatter. There is only one known example of blue color deriving from a blue pigment found within a pigment cell. For amphibians, reptiles and birds, the scatter of blue wavelengths, together with the presence of yellow pigmentation, is fundamental for the expression of green coloration.