Relationships between spatial configuration of tropical forest patches and woody plant diversity in northeastern Puerto Rico

The destruction and fragmentation of tropical forests are major sources of global biodiversity loss. A better understanding of anthropogenically altered landscapes and their relationships with species diversity and composition is needed in order to protect biodiversity in these environments. The spatial patterns of a landscape may control the ecological processes that shape species diversity and composition. However, there is little information about how plant diversity varies with the spatial configuration of forest patches especially in fragmented tropical habitats. The northeastern part of Puerto Rico provides the opportunity to study the relationships between species richness and composition of woody plants (shrubs and trees) and spatial variables [i.e., patch area and shape, patch isolation, connectivity, and distance to the Luquillo Experimental Forest (LEF)] in tropical forest patches that have regenerated from pasturelands. The spatial data were obtained from aerial color photographs from year 2000. Each photo interpretation was digitized into a GIS package, and 12 forest patches (24–34 years old) were selected within a study area of 28 km². The woody plant species composition of the patches was determined by a systematic floristic survey. The species diversity (Shannon index) and species richness of woody plants correlated positively with the area and the shape of the forest patch. Larger patches, and patches with more habitat edge or convolution, provided conditions for a higher diversity of woody plants. Moreover, the distance of the forest patches to the LEF, which is a source of propagules, correlated negatively with species richness. Plant species composition was also related to patch size and shape and distance to the LEF. These results indicate that there is a link between landscape structure and species diversity and composition and that patches that have similar area, shape, and distance to the LEF provide similar conditions for the existence of a particular plant community. In addition, forest patches that were closer together had more similarity in woody plant species composition than patches that were farther apart, suggesting that seed dispersal for some species is limited at the scale of 10 km.     

山地景观遗传学研究文献综述

山地生态系统是生物多样性分布与保护的热点。山地景观遗传学（Mountain Landscape Genetics）研究在山地景观尺度上野生生物的种群遗传格局及其驱动机制和影响因素,是景观遗传学（Landscape Genetics）的重要分支。山地景观遗传学研究对于深入理解物种的空间遗传结构、形成过程、物种形成与分化机制具有重要意义与价值,同时可以为珍稀濒危物种和山地生物多样性的有效保护与管理提供科学指导。为了更好地掌握目前山地景观遗传学的发展趋势与重点研究问题,为未来生物多样性与山地生态系统的保护管理提供科学参考,基于对Web of Science核心数据库和中国知网数据库的系统检索,全面汇总分析了1999-2020年山地景观遗传学领域发表的192篇英文文献与31篇中文文献。结果显示,该领域自2008年起迅速发展,截至2020年共有46个国家的研究机构发表了山地景观遗传相关研究,研究热点地区包括北美洲的落基山脉、内华达山脉、阿巴拉契亚山脉,欧洲的阿尔卑斯山脉、比利牛斯山脉,以及亚洲的喜马拉雅-横断山脉。研究对象类群涵盖真菌、植物、节肢动物、脊椎动物,其中脊椎动物是研究发表最多的类群,占发表文献总数的62.0%;脊椎动物中,又以对哺乳类（占脊椎动物发表文献总数的52.9%）与两栖类（23.5%）的研究最多。目前主要的研究方向包括：（1）识别山地景观中的基因流路径或阻碍;（2）量化山地景观特征对种群遗传结构时空变化的影响。中国是发表山地景观遗传学文章数量最多的亚洲国家,近十年来相关研究发展迅速,研究类群以植物（占在中国发表文献总数的62.3%）与脊椎动物（35.8%）为主,对脊椎动物的研究中以两栖动物为最多（占所有脊椎动物发文数量的52.6%）,研究区域主要集中在喜马拉雅-横断山脉与秦岭。本文进一步对目前山地景观遗传学研究中存在的空缺及未来重点关注问题提出建议。     

Review of forest landscape models: Types, methods, development and applications

Forest landscape models simulate forest change through time using spatially referenced data across a broad spatial scale (i.e. landscape scale) generally larger than a single forest stand. Spatial interactions between forest stands are a key component of such models. These models can incorporate other spatio-temporal processes such as natural disturbances (e.g. wildfires, hurricanes, outbreaks of native and exotic invasive pests and diseases) and human influences (e.g. harvesting and commercial thinning, planting, fire suppression). The models are increasingly used as tools for studying forest management, ecological assessment, restoration planning, and climate change. In this paper, we define forest landscape models and discuss development, components, and types of the models. We also review commonly used methods and approaches of modeling forest landscapes, their application, and their strengths and weaknesses. New developments in computer sciences, geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing technologies, decision-support systems, and geo-spatial statistics have provided opportunities for developing a new generation of forest landscape models that are increasingly valuable for ecological research, restoration planning and resource management.     

Review of forest landscape models: Types, methods, development and applications

Forest landscape models simulate forest change through time using spatially referenced data across a broad spatial scale (i.e. landscape scale) generally larger than a single forest stand. Spatial interactions between forest stands are a key component of such models. These models can incorporate other spatio-temporal processes such as natural disturbances (e.g. wildfires, hurricanes, outbreaks of native and exotic invasive pests and diseases) and human influences (e.g. harvesting and commercial thinning, planting, fire suppression). The models are increasingly used as tools for studying forest management, ecological assessment, restoration planning, and climate change. In this paper, we define forest landscape models and discuss development, components, and types of the models. We also review commonly used methods and approaches of modeling forest landscapes, their application, and their strengths and weaknesses. New developments in computer sciences, geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing technologies, decision-support systems, and geo-spatial statistics have provided opportunities for developing a new generation of forest landscape models that are increasingly valuable for ecological research, restoration planning and resource management.     

Seagrass complexity hierarchies: Influence on fish groups around the coast of Jersey (English Channel)

Recent research has identified a need for seagrass habitat management plans to be based on landscape-level approaches as they offer a more appropriate scale for large mobile fauna than smaller scales. Also, conservation decisions are more likely to be a choice between different seagrass beds rather than parts of individual beds. The present study examined the spatial utilisation of subtidal seagrass beds by fish around the coast of Jersey, English Channel (49°N 02°W) with the aim of identifying influential scales of complexity. A hierarchical-scale of landscape configuration and habitat characteristics was measured for eight seagrass beds using aerial photographic analysis (e.g. core area, contiguity and other landscape metrics), digital echo-sounder data (e.g. depth, canopy height) and diver surveys (e.g. epiphyte load). The contributions of these variables as predictors of functional fish groups were explored using multiple linear regression models. Results indicated that more fragmented seagrass beds supported lower numbers of fish species than more homogenous seagrass landscapes (squared semi-partial correlation coefficient, sr² = − 0.3). Densities of juveniles of larger fish species showed a negative relationship with increased fragmentation of the seagrass (sr² = − 0.34). At smaller scales of structural complexity the densities of cryptic fish were related positively to canopy height (sr² = 0.46). At night, fewer patterns could be explained by the independent variables in the model, which was attributed to the greater movement of fish between the seagrass and adjacent habitats to forage, and a breakdown in the association with seagrass habitat as a refuge from predation.     

小相岭山系主要植被类型的动态变化分析

以3S技术作为信息获取和处理的手段,将景观生态学原理与植被变化研究的传统方法相结合,对小相岭山系主要植被类型在近30年发生复杂相互转化的主要表现和动态变化特征进行量化分析。结果表明：（1）针阔叶混交林与针叶林的变化趋势相似,在30年中持续增长,增幅分别为17．57％、7．56％;新增斑块与原有斑块连接在一起,形成边界复杂的大斑块,景观破碎度和均匀性有所降低。（2）高山灌丛呈先减少后增加的变化趋势,在90年代面积与数量都有所回升,但新增斑块多数为尺寸较小的斑块,大量小斑块的出现导致景观破碎度和离散度有所增加。（3）高山流石滩植被在30年中不断减少,减幅为6．41％;由于减少的多是小斑块,因此破碎化程度并未加深,且分布的均匀性有所加强。研究结果不仅可以解释该山系主要植被景观格局与生态过程相互作用的机理,而且可以阐明其动态演替的方向、过程或扩展潜力。     

Remotely sensed landscape heterogeneity as a rapid tool for assessing local biodiversity value in a highly modified New Zealand landscape

The widespread conversion of natural habitats to agricultural land has created a need to integrate intensively managed landscapes into conservation management priorities. However, there are no clearly defined methods for assessing the conservation value of managed landscapes at the local scale. We used remotely sensed landscape heterogeneity as a rapid practical tool for the assessment of local biodiversity value within a predominantly agricultural landscape in Canterbury, New Zealand. Bird diversity was highly significantly correlated with landscape heterogeneity, distance from rivers and the Christchurch central business district, altitude and average annual household income, indicating that remotely sensed landscape heterogeneity is a good predictor of local biodiversity patterns. We discuss the advantages and limitations of using geographic information systems to determine local areas of high conservation value.     

Extrapolation of random forest models shows scale adaptation in egret colony site selection against landscape complexity

Availability of certain habitats or landscape configurations can cause differential habitat selection in animal species. Landscape complexity can affect foraging scales, home ranges and movement, but its effect on habitat selection is not well documented. We aimed to examine differences in colony site selection of herons and egrets in different regions. We studied whether landscape complexities could affect their scale of selection and habitat preferences. We used colony distribution data and land-use maps for two neighboring regions, Ibaraki and Chiba prefectures in Japan, to create random forest models for analyzing habitat preferences and important scales of selection. We did cross-validation of the models, adjusted for its respective region's land-use maps with changing scales. The scales that best explained colony distribution were 1-, 4-, 10- and 15-km in the Ibaraki region, and 1- and 10-km in the Chiba region. Evergreen forest was the most important variable for Ibaraki at 4-km and for the Chiba at 1-km. The importance of other variables differed for other models. Cross-validation showed that herons and egrets had the same habitat preferences at a 4-km scale in Ibaraki and at a 1-km scale in Chiba. The scale of selection was reduced in Chiba, where the main foraging resources for herons and egrets was more complex. Differences in landscape complexities did not affect habitat preferences but resulted in differences in the scale of selection. Habitat selection models created at the landscape level can be useful to study behavioral aspects difficult to describe with direct observation in detail.     

Controlled experiments of habitat fragmentation: a simple computer simulation and a test using small mammals

Habitat fragmentation involves a reduction in the effective area available to a population and the imposition of hard patch edges. Studies seeking to measure effects of habitat fragmentation have compared populations in fragments of different size to estimate and area effect but few have examined the effect of converting open populations to closed ones (an effect of edges). To do so requires a shift in spatial scope-from comparison of individual fragments to that of fragmented versus unfragmented landscapes. Here we note that large-scale, controlled studies of habitat fragmentation have rarely been performed and are needed. In making our case we develop a simple computer simulation model based on how individual animals with home ranges are affected by the imposition of habitat edges, and use it to predict population-level responses to habitat fragmentation. We then compare predictions of the model with results from a field experiment on Peromyscus and Microtus. Our model treats the case where home ranges/territories fall entirely within or partially overlap with that of sample areas in continuous landscapes, but are restricted to areas within habitat fragments in impacted landscapes. Results of the simulations demonstrate that the imposition of hard edges can produce different population abundances for similar-sized areas in continuous and fragmented landscapes. This edge effect is disproportionately greater in small than large fragments and for species with larger than smaller home ranges. These predictions were generally supported by our field experiment. We argue that large-scale studies of habitat fragmentation are sorely needed, and that control-experiment contrasts of fragmented and unfragmented microlandscapes provide a logical starting point.     

Host density influences parasitism of the armyworm Pseudaletia unipuncta in agricultural landscapes

Several studies have shown positive responses of parasitism to either host density or landscape complexity. However, no experiments have manipulated host density in landscapes of differing complexity. Here we report the results of a field experiment conducted to determine how host density and agricultural landscape structure jointly affect parasitism and parasitoid diversity of Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Parasitism was assessed by experimentally adding P. unipuncta sentinel larvae at low (1 larvae/plant) and high (3 larvae/plant) densities to detect parasitism in commercial cornfields located in a complex and a simple agricultural landscape. The braconid wasps Glyptapanteles militaris (Walsh) and Meteorus spp. accounted for 98.4% of the observed parasitism. Landscape structure did not influence parasitism (80.2% on average) and contrary to expectations, showed a trend towards increased parasitoid richness and diversity in the simple landscape. Increasing host density revealed a trend of increasing parasitoid richness and diversity, and differentially affected parasitism at the parasitoid specific level. G. militaris parasitized a significantly greater proportion of hosts at low host density, while the opposite occurred for Meteorus spp. (primarily M. communis). These offsetting responses of parasitoids resulted in the lack of an overall host density effect on parasitism. The differential response of these parasitoids to host density is discussed in relation to differences in morphological and life history characteristics. Our results suggest that the specific composition of parasitoid assemblages could significantly alter parasitism at different host densities independently of landscape structural complexity.

Zusammenfassung

Verschiedene Untersuchungen haben gezeigt, dass Parasitismus entweder auf die Wirtsdichte oder die Landschaftskomplexität positiv reagiert. Dennoch haben keine Experimente die Wirtsdichte in Landschaften unterschiedlicher Komplexität manipuliert. Hier berichten wir von den Ergebnissen eines Freilandexperiments, das unternommen wurde, um zu bestimmen, wie die Wirtsdichte und die Struktur der Agrarlandschaft gemeinschaftlich die Parasitierung und die Parasitoidendiversität bei Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haworth) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) beeinflussen. Die Parasitierung wurde gemessen indem experimentell P. unipuncta Larven in geringen (1 Larve/Pflanze) und hohen (3 Larven/Pflanze) Dichten hinzugefügt wurden, um die Parasitierung in kommerziellen Kornfeldern zu erfassen, die in komplexen und einfachen Agrarlandschaften lagen. 98.4% der Parasitierung entfiel auf die braconiden Wespen Glyptapanteles militaris (Walsh) und Meteorus spp. Die Struktur der Landschaft beeinflusste die Parasitierung nicht (durchschnittlich 80.2%) und zeigte entgegen den Erwartungen einen Trend zu einer erhöhter Parasitoidenartenzahl und -diversität in der einfachen Landschaft. Eine zunehmende Wirtsdichte ließ einen Trend zu einer erhöhten Parasitoidenartenzahl und -diversität erkennen, und sie beeinflusste die Parasitierung auf dem Artenlevel der Parasitoide unterschiedlich. G. militaris parasitierte einen signifikant höheren Anteil der Wirte bei geringen Wirtsdichten, während für Meteorus spp. (vor allem M. communis) das Gegenteil zutraf. Diese sich ausgleichenden Reaktionen der Parasitoide führten zum Fehlen eines Gesamteffekts der Wirtsdichte auf die Parasitierung. Die unterschiedlichen Reaktionen dieser Parasitoide auf die Wirtsdichte werden in Zusammenhang mit Unterschieden in der Morphologie und Lebensweise diskutiert. Unsere Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass die spezifische Zusammensetzung von Ansammlungen von Parasitoiden die Parasitierung bei unterschiedlichen Wirtsdichten unabhängig von der Komplexität der Landschaftsstruktur signifikant verändern könnte.