Late‐glacial recolonization and phylogeography of European red deer (Cervus elaphus L.)

The Pleistocene was an epoch of extreme climatic and environmental changes. How individual species responded to the repeated cycles of warm and cold stages is a major topic of debate. For the European fauna and flora, an expansion–contraction model has been suggested, whereby temperate species were restricted to southern refugia during glacial times and expanded northwards during interglacials, including the present interglacial (Holocene). Here, we test this model on the red deer (Cervus elaphus) a large and highly mobile herbivore, using both modern and ancient mitochondrial DNA from the entire European range of the species over the last c. 40 000 years. Our results indicate that this species was sensitive to the effects of climate change. Prior to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) haplogroups restricted today to South‐East Europe and Western Asia reached as far west as the UK. During the LGM, red deer was mainly restricted to southern refugia, in Iberia, the Balkans and possibly in Italy and South‐Western Asia. At the end of the LGM, red deer expanded from the Iberian refugium, to Central and Northern Europe, including the UK, Belgium, Scandinavia, Germany, Poland and Belarus. Ancient DNA data cannot rule out refugial survival of red deer in North‐West Europe through the LGM. Had such deer survived, though, they were replaced by deer migrating from Iberia at the end of the glacial. The Balkans served as a separate LGM refugium and were probably connected to Western Asia with genetic exchange between the two areas.     

Effects of deer bone extract on the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine and cartilage-related genes in monosodium iodoacetate-induced osteoarthritic rats

Deer bone extract has the potential to relieve the discomfort or the articular cartilaginous damage associated with osteoarthritic (OA) and may be useful as a natural supplement for OA treatment without serious side effects. We analyzed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine and cartilage-related genes in monosodium iodoacetate-induced OA rats. Increases in the levels of serum pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α were significantly inhibited by the administration of deer bone extract (p?<?0.05). Decreases in the expression of collagen type II (COL2) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) mRNAs in the cartilage were significantly inhibited by deer bone extract treatment (p?<?0.05). The deer bone extract significantly suppressed the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) mRNAs in the cartilage. The deer bone extract induced the up-regulation of COL2 and TIMP mRNAs and the down-regulation of MMP mRNAs by suppressing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNAs.     

Enhancement of exercise endurance capacity by fermented deer antler in BALB/c mice

To investigate the activity of fermented deer antler on exercise endurance capacity, we evaluated endurance capacity in five-week-old male BALB/c mice by administering the fermented deer antler extract (FA) or the non-fermented deer antler extract (NFA) and then subjected the mice to exercise in the form of swimming. The mice administered 500?mg/kg/day of FA showed a significant increase in swimming time compared with mice administered placebo (16.55?min vs. 21.64?min, P?<?0.05). Serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), the marker of the liver and muscle damage, was significantly lower in FA groups. However, NFA groups did not show significantly different swimming time or serum LDH from that of the control group. Moreover, the FA-500 group had significantly higher hepatic superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity after forced swimming than the control and NFA groups (P?<?0.05). These findings suggest that fermentation may increase the exercise endurance capacity of the deer antler.     

Exclusion of introduced deer increases size and seed production success in an island‐endemic plant species

The presence of extra‐local invaders, such as the southern California mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) on Santa Catalina Island, may contribute to more selective and insidious effects within the unique ecosystems that have evolved in their absence. Studies at the species level may detect effects not noticed in broader, community level vegetation monitoring or help tease apart differences in the level of effect among the various ecological components of an invaded system. In this initial study, we measured the impacts of herbivory by mule deer, a species native to analogous habitats on the adjacent mainland, on size and seed production success for Crocanthemum greenei (island rush‐rose), a federally listed sub‐shrub that is not present on mainland California. We found deer exclusion resulted in an overall increase in stem measurement of 18.8 cm. Exclosure populations exhibited complete seed production success, whereas control populations showed significantly reduced success and exhibited complete failure within 58% of populations. These results show that the introduced mule deer on Santa Catalina Island are negatively affecting a federally threatened plant species. This strongly implies that the current deer management strategy is insufficient, if one of its goals is biodiversity and endemic species conservation.     

Meat quality of farmed red deer fed a balanced diet: effects of supplementation with copper bolus on different muscles

Supplementation with copper (Cu) improves deer antler characteristics, but it could modify meat quality and increase its Cu content to levels potentially harmful for humans. Here, we studied the effects of Cu bolus supplementation by means on quality and composition of sternocephalicus (ST) and rectus abdominis (RA) muscles (n=13 for each one) from yearling male red deer fed with a balanced diet. Each intraruminal bolus, containing 3.4 g of Cu, was administered orally in the treatment group to compare with the control group. Meat traits studied were pH at 24 h postmortem (pH₂₄), colour, chemical composition, cholesterol content, fatty acid (FA) composition, amino acid (AA) profile and mineral content. In addition, the effect of Cu supplementation on mineral composition of liver and serum (at 0 and 90 days of treatment) was analysed. No interactions between Cu supplementation and muscle were observed for any trait. Supplementation with Cu increased the protein content of meat (P<0.01). However, Cu content of meat, liver and serum was not modified by supplementation. In fact, Cu content of meat (1.20 and 1.34 mg/kg for Cu supplemented and control deer, respectively) was much lower in both groups than 5 mg/kg of fresh weight allowed legally for food of animal origin. However, bolus of Cu tended to increase the meat content of zinc and significantly increased (P<0.05) the hepatic contents of sodium and lead. Muscles studied had different composition and characteristics. The RA muscle had significantly higher protein content (P<0.001), monounsaturated FA content (P<0.05) and essential/non-essential AA ratio (P<0.01) but lower pH₂₄ (P<0.01) and polyunsaturated FA content (P=0.001) than the ST muscle. In addition, RA muscle had 14.4% less cholesterol (P=0.001) than ST muscle. Also, mineral profile differed between muscles with higher content of iron, significantly higher (P<0.001) content of zinc and lower content of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus (P<0.05) for ST muscle compared with RA. Therefore, supplementation with Cu modified deer meat characteristics, but it did not increase its concentration to toxic levels, making it a safe practice from this perspective. Despite the lower content of polyunsaturated FA, quality was better for RA than for ST muscle based on its higher content of protein with more essential/non-essential AA ratio and lower pH₂₄ and cholesterol content.     

Spatial memory shapes migration and its benefits: evidence from a large herbivore

From fine‐scale foraging to broad‐scale migration, animal movement is shaped by the distribution of resources. There is mounting evidence, however, that learning and memory also guide movement. Although migratory mammals commonly track resource waves, how resource tracking and memory guide long‐distance migration has not been reconciled. We examined these hypotheses using movement data from four populations of migratory mule deer (n = 91). Spatial memory had an extraordinary influence on migration, affecting movement 2–28 times more strongly than tracking spring green‐up or autumn snow depth. Importantly, with only an ability to track resources, simulated deer were unable to recreate empirical migratory routes. In contrast, simulated deer with memory of empirical routes used those routes and obtained higher foraging benefits. For migratory terrestrial mammals, spatial memory provides knowledge of where seasonal ranges and migratory routes exist, whereas resource tracking determines when to beneficially move within those areas.     

中国圈养林麝微卫星DNA多样性研究

本文利用13对微卫星标记,对我国3个核心种源地（巴山、秦岭、川西高原）圈养林麝种群进行遗传多样性和遗传结构分析。在167份样品中共检测到142个等位基因（Na）,每个位点等位基因数介于7~16,均值为10.92,平均有效等位基因数（Ne）为6.3730,期望杂合度（He）和观测杂合度（Ho）均值分别为0.8302和0.3897。这些圈养林麝种群遗传多样性水平较高,但较低的观测杂合度表明圈养群体存在近交现象。两两群体间的Fst 值和AMOVA分析结果均表明种群之间分化程度不明显。群体遗传结构分析显示,全部样本聚为3个遗传簇（最佳K值=3）,其主体与3个地理来源相符,但种群间存在基因渗透现象。本研究中的秦岭种群遗传变异最为丰富,可以作为种质改良的基因池。     

Non-invasive assessment of reproductive status in Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis): Correlation with sexual behaviour

The annual reproductive cycle of Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inermis), a nearly threatened small cervid species, was studied by means of fecal steroid analysis coupled with behavioural observations. Data showed a clearly seasonal reproductive pattern. In adult males, the onset of androgen secretion, in October, was concomitant with the first manifestations of territoriality. Androgen metabolites concentrations reached significant peak values in December, when matings occurred. In mature females, there was a close synchrony in reproductive states: lactational/seasonal anoestrus from June to November, pregnancy from December to May. Fecal progesterone metabolites profiles suggested that silent ovulations occurred at the onset of breeding season and that females conceived at their first ovulation with behavioural estrus. The female sexual receptivity state might last only a few hours. High levels of sniffing, parades and pursuits, concomitant of the highest concentrations of androgen, could allow the males to detect the furtive estrus in the females present in their territory. We concluded that the non-invasive method applied for the first time in this species was useful for the evaluation of the endocrine status and its relation with behaviour.     

Land use and dispersal influence mortality in white-tailed deer

Restoring male age structure in white-tailed deer populations has become an important objective for many state agencies aimed at improving herd dynamics. Limiting mortality in the yearling (1–2 yr old) age class is a primary consideration, and regional differences in climate, habitat characteristics, hunting regulations, and hunter behavior complicate the understanding of how specific factors influence the risk of mortality. We used Cox proportional hazard modeling to determine the effects of body size, mean distance to road, dispersal behaviors, use of forested land, and use of land open to public hunting on the risk of mortality for a population of radio-collared, yearling males (n = 76) in Sussex County, Delaware, USA. Annual survival averaged 0.55 (95% CI = 0.45–0.68), with harvest accounting for 79% (26/33) of all mortalities. Measurements of body size (chest girth, shoulder height, and total length; cm) influenced dispersal probability but not dispersal distance. The best approximating model for mortality risk included a covariate for landownership, whereby mortality risk increased on public land. Among males who dispersed, longer-distance dispersal was associated with reduced mortality, which contradicts previous research describing dispersal as a high-risk behavior. The effect of landownership on mortality risk has not been previously identified, especially when regulations regarding harvest of yearling males are similar between landownership types. We observed annual survival rates of 0.69 (95% CI = 0.57–0.82) for deer apparently using private land exclusively during the hunting season, and 0.20 (95% CI = 0.11–0.48) for deer that used public land during the hunting season. Survival rates on private land were comparable to those of other regions actively managing male age structure. These results suggest survival of yearling males in the region is influenced by hunter harvest and the risks associated with dispersal may be minimal in areas where harvest pressure is low, although hunter harvest on public land may limit male age structure on a localized scale. © The Wildlife Society, 2019