Does the tsetse parturition rhythm have a circadian basis?

Abstract. Under an LD 12:12h photoregime at constant temperature, parturition in Glossina morsitans centralis is a gated event occurring late in the afternoon. When flies are switched to continuous light the rhythm quickly dampens, but its persistence for at least two 24-h cycles beyond the final scotophase suggests the rhythm has a circadian basis. A weak rhythm appears after 7 days of continuous light, perhaps in response to the daily disturbance caused by feeding. Return of the flies to LD 12:12h restores the rhythm after exposure to a single scotophase.     

Studies on Trypanosoma vivax: The infectivity of cyclically and mechanically transmitted ruminant infections for mice and rats

The infection of laboratory rodents by cyclically established Trypanosoma vivax infections in ruminants was only successful for a period up to 4 weeks after the first fly feed on the ruminants; rats and mice were equally susceptible. Similar results were obtained when ruminants were inoculated by syringe with infected blood from the early stage of a cyclically transmitted T. vivax infection. The development of antibodies, as measured by fluorescence, in the ruminants had no influence on the outcome of the rodent-inoculations.

When blood was inoculated into susceptible oxen from the later chronic stage of a cyclically and from a mechanically established bovine infection, subsequent rodent infections were achieved only occasionally; parasitaemia in the rodents was low and the patent period short. It was concluded that the infectivity of T. vivax for rodents was predominantly a characteristic of the isolate and not of the donor or recipient mammalian species. The value of blood inoculation of rodents in epidemiological studies for detecting early infections of T. vivax is emphasized.     

Antigenic Analysis By Immunofluorescence of In Vitro-Produced Metacyclics of Trypanosoma Brucei and Their Infections In Mice*

SYNOPSIS. the antigenic types in populations of metacyclic trypanosomes of Trypanosoma brucei isolated from Glossina morsitans head-salivary gland trypanosome cultures and bloodstream forms in the early parasitemias produced from whole culture supernatant fluids containing metacyclic forms, were analyzed by the indirect fluorescent antibody test using clone-specific antisera. Metacyclic trypanosomes in cultures initiated with cloned bloodstream forms were heterogeneous with respect to their variable antigenic type (VAT). Trypanosomes comprising early parasitemias in immunosuppressed mice infected with metacyclics produced in cultures also had a range of VATs. Three of the VATs detected in the early parasitemias in mice have also been identified by other investigators in tsetse fly-transmitted populations of the same stock.     

Ultrastructural Studies of Certain Aspects of the Development of Trypanosoma congolense in Glossina morsitans morsitans*

SYNOPSIS The course of Trypanosoma congolense infections in Glossina morsitans morsitans was followed by electron-microscopic examination of ultrathin sections of the guts and proboscises of infected flies. Guts dissected from flies 7 days after infection with culture procyclic forms of T. congolense had heavy trypanosome infections in the midgut involving both the endo- and ectoperitrophic spaces. Trypanosomes were also seen in the process of penetrating the fully formed peritrophic membrane in the central region of the midgut. By post infection day 21, trypanosomes had reached the proboscis of the fly and were found as clumps of epimastigote forms attached to the labrum by hemidesmosomes between their flagella and the chitinous lining of the food canal. Desmosome connections were observed between the flagella of adjacent epimastigotes. Flies examined at postinfection days 28 and 42 had, in addition to the attached forms in the labrum, free forms in the hypopharynx.     

Mitochondrial diversity analysis of Glossina palpalis gambiensis from Mali and Senegal

West African riverine tsetse populations of Glossina palpalis gambiensis Vanderplank (Diptera: Glossinidae) were investigated for gene flow, inferred from mitochondrial diversity in samples of 69 flies from Senegal and 303 flies from three river drainages in Mali. Four polymorphic mitochondrial loci were scored. Mean haplotype diversities were 0.30 in Mali, 0 in Senegal and 0.18 over both Mali and Senegal. These diversities estimate the probabilities that two randomly chosen tsetse have different haplotypes. Substantial rates of gene flow were detected among flies sampled along tributaries belonging to the river basins of the Senegal, Niger, and Bani in Mali. There was virtually no gene flow between tsetse in Senegal and Mali. No seasonal effects on gene flow were detected. The implications of these preliminary findings for the implementation of area-wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) programmes against riverine tsetse in West Africa are discussed.     

Comparison of the infection rate of tsetse, Glossina morsitans morsitans, fed in vitro or in vivo

Studies were made of infection rates of trypanosomes in the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood (Diptera: Glossinidae) when maintained in vivo (rabbits) or in vitro on high quality, gamma-irradiated, sterile defibrinated bovine blood, obtained from the Entomology Unit of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). For both Trypanosoma congolense Broden and T. b. brucei Plimmer & Bradford, in vitro maintenance significantly reduced the proportion of flies that developed mature metacyclic trypanosome infections.     

Field responses of Glossina austeni to sticky panels on Unguja Island, Zanzibar

Abstract .Two designs of cross-shaped sticky panels (XT and XLP) were compared with the royal blue–white legpanel (LPBuWh) in the Jozani forest on Unguja Island as trapping devices for male Glossina austeni . Single coloured royal blue (XTBu) and bi-coloured royal blue–white XT (XTBuWh) caught more than twice as many male G. austeni as the LPBuWh, whereas single coloured black XT trapped significantly fewer flies (10%) than the control LPBuWh. XT's in various horizontal and diagonal blue–white configurations likewise trapped more flies than the LPBuWh, except a horizontally striped blue–white XT which trapped fivefold fewer flies than the LPBuWh. Cross-shaped LP in the blue–white (XLPBuWh) and black–white (XLPBlWh) combination scored significantly better than the control LPBuWh. Similar fly numbers were trapped with XTBuWh and XLPBuWh. Long-term trapping data indicated that the XTBu, XTBuWh and XLPBuWh were three- to fourfold more effective in trapping female flies than the LPBuWh.
The landing bias on bi-coloured panels was low in the blue–white but more pronounced in the blue–black and white–black combinations and was affected by the type of sticky panel used. A high proportion (49%) of the flies alighted on the bottom corners of the XTBu panel, but landing positions were more scattered if white was added.
Increasing the width of the XTBu from 70 to 120 cm improved the catch by a factor of two as compared with standard sized XTBu. The effect of doubling the height of the XT on total fly catch was negligible.
At present, it is the XTBu which can be recommended as the best trapping device for male and female G. austeni.     

Lectin signalling of maturation of T.congolense infections in tsetse

The process of maturation of Trypanosoma congolense Broden in tsetse has been shown to be initiated by lectin secreted in the fly midgut. In the present study the duration of lectin signal required to induce maturation was determined by the sequential addition or removal of a specific lectin inhibitor (D+glucosamine) to the diet of infected male Glossina morsitans Westwood. An established midgut infection of T.congolense was found to require, at most, 72 h exposure to midgut lectin to begin the process of maturation. Longer exposure to midgut lectin increased the frequency of maturation, suggesting clonal variation in response to lectin stimulation occurs within trypanosome stocks. It is suggested that this variation corresponds to differences in lectin binding sites on the trypanosome surface. Midgut trypanosomes retained their ability to mature throughout their life in the fly; when lectin activity in the midgut was inhibited, the trypanosomes remained as procyclic forms but when this inhibition was removed maturation was able to proceed. This indicates that the process of maturation is dependent upon a signal from the fly and is not predetermined by the trypanosomes undergoing a fixed number of division cycles. The possible role of lectins in the maturation of trypanosomes in vitro is discussed.     

Flight behaviour of tsetse flies in host odour plumes: the initial response to leaving or entering odour

ABSTRACT. Free-flying, wild male and female Glossina pallidipes Aust. and G. m. morsitans Westw. were video-recorded in the field in Zimbabwe as they entered or left the side of a host-odour plume in cross-wind flight, or as they overshot a source of host odour in upwind flight (camera 2.5 m up looking down at a 3 times 2.5 m field of view at ground level). 80% of cross-wind odour leavers turned sharply ( turns 95^o), but without regard to wind direction (overshooters behaved essentially the same except that nearly 100% turned). Many fewer flies entering a plume cross wind turned ( c . 60%), and when they did they made much smaller turns ( 58^o); these turns were, however, significantly biassed upwind ( c . 70%). All three classes of fly had similar groundspeeds ( 5.5–6.5 m s^_1) and angular velocities ( 350–400^o s^-1). Clear evidence was obtained of in-flight sensitivity to wind direction: significantly more flies entering odour turned upwind than downwind, and odour losers turning upwind made significantly larger turns than average. The main basis for the different sizes of turn was the different durations of the turning flight, rather than changes in angular velocity or speed. No evidence was found of flies landing after losing contact with odour.     

Multiple mating and inseminating potential of Glossina pallidipes

In the tsetse fly Glossina pallidipes Austen multiple mating of females and the inseminating capacity of males was investigated with the aim of economizing on the number of males in mass rearing. Forty five percent of mated but uninseminated females and 9% of inseminated females remated.Virgin males inseminated four times in succession and remained eager to copulate thereafter. Restoration of the inseminating ability took 2 h rest. Experienced and virgin males were equally successful at mating. Insemination occurred during the last 30 s of the copulation and one male inseminated nine females on the average. Females mated in a 1:1 or a 1:3 / ratio were equally productive. The females that were mated in a 1:3 ratio survived better.Series of three successive matings, alternated with periods of rest, showed that the males did not regain their original inseminating capacity. In the first series all three mates were inseminated, but in subsequent series only the first and the second. An efficacious reduction of the number of males to 20% of the number of females to be mated may be possible by using the males first in a 1:3 and subsequently in a 1:2 / ratio.

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Résumé Afin d'économiser le nombre de mâles à maintenir dans des élevages de masse pour des études sur les méthodes de protection contre Glossina pallidipes, les accouplements multiples des mâles et des femelles ont été étudiés au laboratoire.7 à 9 jours après leur émergence, les femelles ont eu pour la première fois la possibilité de s'accoupler avec des mâles vierges ou non. La réceptivité lors des accouplements ultérieurs a été testée immédiatement après le premier accouplement. 45% des femelles non inséminées se réaccouplent. Parmi les femelles inséminées, seulement 9% copulent à nouveau dans les 6 h qui suivent le premier accouplement.Les mâles présentés à une succession de femelles restaient avides de copuler, mais la majorité était incapable de les inséminer après la 4ème copulation; la restauration du pouvoir fertilisant demandait une période de repos de 2 h.En laboratoire, les mâles vierges ou expérimentés ne présentaient aucun avantage sexuel les uns par rapport aux autres. Les femelles semblaient avoir été inséminées dans les 30 dernières secondes de la copulation.Aucune différence de productivité n'a été observée quand les accouplements ont eu lieu avec 1 mâle pour 1 ou 3 femelles.Des séries de 3 accouplements successifs, alternant avec des periodes de repos, ont montré que le pouvoir fertilisant ne retrouvait pas son niveau initial. Dans les premières séries, toutes les 3 femelles ont été inséminées, mais dans les séries ultérieures seulement la 1ère et la 2nde. En moyenne, un maximum de 9 femelles était inséminé, marqué par un remplissage de la spermathèque de plus de 50% ou une fécondité supérieure à 0,8. Une réduction efficace du nombre de mâles, au cinquième de celui des femelles à accoupler, est possible en utilisant d'abord 1 mâle pour 3 femelles et ensuite 1 mâle pour 2 femelles.