Thermodynamic aspects of energy conservation by chemolithotrophic sulfur bacteria in relation to the sulfur oxidation pathways

The free-energy data on which assessments of the autotrophic growth efficiencies of chemolithotrophic bacteria are commonly based have been reevaluated and new values have been calculated. It has been concluded that many earlier calculations are in error and that many values previously reported in the literature are overestimates of efficiency. A problem posed by the chemolithotrophic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria is the elucidation of the mechanism by which elemental sulfur and the sulfane-sulfur (-S-) of the thionic acids are converted to sulfite. Even after decades of studies on sulfur oxidation by these bacteria, this problem has not been fully resolved although it is widely thought that conversion of sulfur to sulfite is brought about by an oxygenase. The biochemically feasible mechanisms by which sulfur and “sulfane” oxidation to sulfite might occur are reviewed. The possible insight afforded by chemical thermodynamics into the most likely mechanisms for oxidation to sulfate in relation to the efficiency of energy conservation is discussed. Energetic calculations and growth yield data indicate that the energy-yielding oxidation of sulfur and “sulfane” to sulfite, either coupled to energy-conserving electron transport or catalyzed by an oxygenase, could explain divergent growth yields among different sulfur-chemolithotrophs. Received: 30 October 1998 / Accepted: 25 January 1999     

指数施肥对楸树无性系生物量分配和根系形态的影响

为探求楸树不同无性系生物量分配和根系形态的差异,2011年3-8月在甘肃省天水市小陇山林科所,以2年生楸树无性系1-4、7080和015-1组培苗为试验材料,设置了CK、6、10、14 g尿素/株4个处理,研究指数施肥对楸树无性系生物量分配和根系形态的影响.结果表明:(1)同一无性系中,10 g尿素/株的根、茎、叶生物量及总生物量、根长、根表面积、根体积和根平均直径均高于其它处理.无性系015-1的生物量和根系形态参数整体上高于无性系1-4和7080.无性系015-1在10 g尿素/株的根、茎、叶生物量及总生物量分别为89.44 g、61.30 g、79.97 g、230.71 g,是CK的1.48、1.52、2.09、1.66倍;根长、根表面积和根体积为22667 cm、6260 cm2、578.14 cm3,是CK的1.94、1.54、2.43倍.(2)指数施肥和无性系的遗传差异明显影响楸树不同无性系生物量的分配格局.适量施氮明显促进3个楸树无性系生物量的积累,而氮素缺乏或过量均不利于生物量的积累.8月同一无性系的根冠比均随施氮量的增加而降低;同一处理下无性系7080的根冠比高于无性系1-4和015-l.无性系1-4和7080的生物量主要向叶和茎分配,而无性系015-1主要向叶分配.(3)指数施肥在6月和7月主要促进细根根长和根表面积的增加;指数施肥在8月主要促进细根、中等根和粗根体积的急剧增加,分别比7月高达36.88％、124.96％、154.79％.这利于根系在中后期吸收更多养分,从而引起生物量分配格局的变化.(4)生物量参数和根系形态参数关系密切.根生物量、地上生物量、总生物量分别和根长、根表面积、根体积、根平均直径极显著正相关;根冠比和根长、根表面积、根体积、根平均直径极显著负相关;比根长和地上生物量、总生物量显著正相关,和根冠比极显著负相关.     

施氮和减水对中亚热带壳斗科三种幼树生物量及其分配的影响

土壤氮素和土壤含水量是森林生态系统中限制植物生长的重要因子。为探讨常绿阔叶树种对模拟氮沉降增加和降水减少的响应,以同质园中自然生长的壳斗科(Fagaceae)丝栗栲(Castanopsis fargesii)、大叶青冈(Cyclobalanopsis jensenniana)和麻栎(Quercus acutissima)五年生幼树为对象,比较了对照(CK)、施氮(+N,施氮60 kg hm~(-2) a~(-1))、减水(-W,减少自然降水的50%)以及施氮和减水(+N-W,施氮60 kg hm~(-2) a~(-1)和减少自然降水的50%)对总生物量、各器官生物量及其生物量分配的影响。研究表明:(1)施氮显著增加了三种幼树的总生物量及各器官生物量(P0.05)。(2)减水未引起三种幼树的总生物量及各器官生物量的显著下降(P0.05)。(3)除麻栎树叶生物量、树枝生物量外,施氮和减水交互作用对三种幼树总生物量及各器官生物量没有明显影响(P0.05)。(4)施氮显著提高了丝栗栲幼树的干重比、大叶青冈幼树的干重比和枝重比(P0.05),降低了大叶青冈的叶重比和根重比(P0.05)。(5)减水导致丝栗栲幼树和麻栎幼树的根重比、麻栎幼树的根冠比显著增加(P0.05),引起丝栗栲幼树的枝重比、麻栎幼树的叶重比、枝重比和干重比显著降低(P0.05)。(6)施氮和减水交互作用显著提高了丝栗栲幼树的根重比(P0.05),降低了麻栎幼树的干重比(P0.05)。     

Long‐term effects of artificial nighttime lighting and trophic complexity on plant biomass and foliar carbon and nitrogen in a grassland community

The introduction of artificial nighttime lighting due to human settlements and transport networks is increasingly altering the timing, intensity, and spectra of natural light regimes worldwide. Much of the research on the impacts of nighttime light pollution on organisms has focused on animal species. Little is known about the impacts of daylength extension due to outdoor lighting technologies on wild plant communities, despite the fact that plant growth and development are under photoperiodic control. In a five‐year field experiment, artificial ecosystems (“mesocosms”) of grassland communities both alone or in combination with invertebrate herbivores and predators were exposed to light treatments that simulated street lighting technologies (low‐pressure sodium, and light‐emitting diode [LED]‐based white lighting), at ground‐level illuminance. Most of the plant species in the mesocosms did not exhibit changes in biomass accumulation after 5 years of exposure to the light treatments. However, the white LED treatment had a significant negative effect on biomass production in the herbaceous species Lotus pedunculatus. Likewise, the interaction between the white LED treatment and the presence of herbivores significantly reduced the mean shoot/root ratio of the grass species Holcus lanatus. Artificial nighttime lighting had no effect on the foliar carbon or nitrogen in most of the grassland species. Nevertheless, the white LED treatment significantly increased the leaf nitrogen content in Lotus corniculatus in the presence of herbivores. Long‐term exposure to artificial light at night had no general effects on plant biomass responses in experimental grassland communities. However, species‐specific and negative effects of cool white LED lighting at ground‐level illuminance on biomass production and allocation in mixed plant communities are suggested by our findings. Further studies on the impacts of light pollution on biomass accumulation in plant communities are required as these effects could be mediated by different factors, including herbivory, competition, and soil nutrient availability.     

土壤碳库积累与分配对热带森林恢复的响应

为探明土壤有机碳沉积对热带森林恢复的响应过程与机理,选取西双版纳处于不同恢复阶段的热带森林类型(前期的白背桐群落、中期的崖豆藤群落、后期的高檐蒲桃群落)为研究对象,探讨土壤有机碳库各组分积累与分配(微生物量碳储量/总有机碳储量、易氧化有机碳储量/总有机碳储量、惰性有机碳储量/总有机碳储量)的时空变化规律,分析乔木与林下物种的丰富度和多样性、土壤温湿度、容重、pH及氮库(全氮、水解氮、铵氮、硝氮)对土壤有机碳库组分积累与分配的影响。结果表明:(1)热带森林恢复显著促进土壤碳库各组分的蓄积(P<0.05),相较于恢复前期,恢复中后期土壤总有机碳、微生物量碳、易氧化有机碳、惰性有机碳储量增幅达9.25%-50.84%;恢复促进了土壤微生物量碳和易氧化有机碳的分配(8.98%-25.36%)(P<0.05),但对惰性有机碳分配无显著影响;(2)不同恢复阶段热带森林土壤碳组分积累与分配的时空变化存在一定的差异。其中上述4种碳组分积累最大值均出现在6月、垂直变化均沿土层递减;土壤易氧化有机碳和微生物量碳分配最大值出现在6月、惰性有机碳分配则在12月最大,易氧化有机碳和微生物量碳分配沿土层递减、惰性有机碳分配无显著垂直变化;(3)土壤微生物量碳、易氧化有机碳、惰性有机碳的储量在土壤碳库储量的分配占比分别维持在2.40%-5.00%、18.22%-39.34%、18.50%-26.55%,土壤有机碳组分对总有机碳储量变化的解释率表现为:微生物量碳(83.71%)>惰性有机碳(82.17%)>易氧化有机碳(78.54%);(4)相较于恢复初期,恢复后期乔木与林下物种丰富度和Shannon多样性提升了42.78%-490.82%,氮库(全氮、水解氮、铵氮、硝氮)含量仅提升了12.73%-25.51%;(5)冗余分析表明,林下物种丰富度、温湿度、水解氮是影响土壤有机碳组分积累的主要驱动因子,而乔木香农多样性、湿度、容重则是影响土壤有机碳库组分分配的主控因子。因此,西双版纳热带森林恢复进程显著促进了土壤有机碳库组分积累与分配,影响程度取决于样地林下物种丰富度、乔木香农多样性、土壤温湿度、容重与水解氮的状况。     

增温对窄叶鲜卑花高寒灌丛生物量碳和氮分配的影响

文章以青藏高原东部窄叶鲜卑花灌丛为研究对象,采用开顶式生长室(OTCs)模拟增温实验(+1.2℃),分析增温对灌木层和草本层各器官碳、氮分配的影响及其影响因素,以揭示青藏高原东部高寒灌丛灌木层和草本层碳、氮分配对增温的响应策略。结果显示:(1)增温使窄叶鲜卑花灌木层叶、粗根、细根碳库显著增加18.8%、7.7%和139.4%,使灌木层细根氮库显著增加153.9%;增温使草本层地上和地下部分碳库显著增加60.4%和130.5%,使草本层地上和地下部分氮库显著增加46.1%和124.0%。(2)增温使灌木层茎和粗根碳分配比例显著降低18.9%和16.2%,使灌木层叶、茎和粗根氮分配比例显著降低25.2%、23.3%和14.4%,使灌木层细根碳、氮分配比例显著增加86.5%和96.2%;增温使草本层地上部分碳、氮分配比例显著降低19.5%和18.9%,使草本层地下部分碳、氮分配比例显著增加15.6%和24.8%。(3)Pearson相关分析和多元线性回归分析结果表明,空气温度和土壤微生物生物量是影响灌木层地上碳、氮分配的主要因子,能解释其变异的72.0%以上;土壤温度、土壤有机碳含量和土壤脲酶活性是影响灌木层地下碳、氮分配的主要因子,能解释其变异的92.0%以上;土壤有机碳含量、土壤转化酶和脲酶活性是影响草本层地上和地下碳、氮分配的主要因子,能解释其变异的92.8%以上。(4)土壤氮素有效性对灌木层和草本层生物量碳、氮分配的影响不显著。研究表明,气候变暖情景下,青藏高原东部窄叶鲜卑花高寒灌丛的灌木层和草本层植物通过提高地下部分碳、氮分配,进而更好地适应外界环境温度的提高。     

崩岗生态修复不同人工林林下入侵植物和本土植物对群落稳定性的影响

探寻基于自然的崩岗生态修复群落构建方案,以广东三岭山国家森林公园崩岗区早期恢复阶段的4种(湿地松Pinus elliottii、尾叶桉Eucalyptus urophylla、大叶相思Acacia auriculaeformis和樟树Cinnamomum camphora)林分为对象,进行样方调查,以林下入侵植物和本土植物作为切入点,以物种多样性指数、生态位宽度、生态位重叠度、生态响应指数和种间联结指数探究不同林分的群落稳定性,优化林下植物配置。结果表明：(1)4种林分中共有林下植物104种,隶51科92属,其中菊科(Asteraceae)种类最多,有33种;其次是禾本科(Poaceae),有24种。林下本土植物数目为湿地松>尾叶桉>樟树>大叶相思,林下入侵植物数目为湿地松=樟树>大叶相思>尾叶桉。与其他三种林分相比,尾叶桉林的林下入侵物种数目、多样性指数和生态位宽度均最少,同时入侵植物与本土植物的生态位重叠度也最小。(2)林下植物群落未来发展趋势最佳的是湿地松林,其次是尾叶桉林、樟树林,最差为大叶相思林,且除大叶相思林外,其它3种林分正向发展的平均速率大...     

氮负荷增强对闽江口短叶茳芏湿地植物-土壤系统氮累积与分配的影响

选择闽江河口短叶茳芏(Cyperus malaccensis)湿地为研究对象,基于野外氮负荷增强模拟实验,探讨了不同氮负荷水平下(NNT对照处理,0 g N m^-2 a^-1;LNT低氮处理,12.5 g N m^-2 a^-1;MNT中氮处理,25.0 g N m^-2 a^-1;HNT高氮处理,75.0 g N m^-2 a^-1)湿地植物-土壤系统的氮累积与分配特征。结果表明,不同氮负荷处理下湿地土壤(TN)、NH⁺₄-N和NO^-₃-N含量均发生了明显改变。相较于NNT,LNT和MNT的TN、NH⁺₄-N和NO^-₃-N含量均明显增加,增幅分别为9.44%、3.57%、11.99%(LNT)和6.71%、9.37%、46.50%(MNT)。与之不同,HNT的TN含量相比NNT增幅不大,而其NH⁺₄-N、NO^-₃-N含量均显著降低,降幅分别为9.26%和40.77%。不同氮负荷处理下土壤氮含量的垂直分布特征亦发生了明显变化。除HNT外,LNT和MNT的TN、NH⁺₄-N和NO^-₃-N含量均以表层土壤最高。不同氮负荷处理下的TN和NH⁺₄-N含量分布主要受SOM的影响,而NO^-₃-N含量分布主要受植物吸收和垂直淋失的影响。氮负荷增强条件下植物不同器官的TN含量整体表现为叶 ＞ 茎 ＞ 根。不同氮负荷处理下植物-土壤系统的氮储量整体以LNT和MNT较高,而HNT最低。研究发现,短叶茳芏在中低氮负荷条件下可能将更多的氮优先分配给根系,进而以拓展地下空间和提高地下生物量的方式来适应环境;而在高氮负荷条件下,其可能通过增强"自疏效应",并通过拓展地上空间的方式来适应环境。     

Shift in the marginal supply of vegetable oil

Background, Aims and Scope

The consequential approach to system delimitation in LCA requires that consideration of the technologies and suppliers included are ‘marginal’, i.e. that they are actually affected by a change in demand. Furthermore, coproduct allocation must be avoided by system expansion. Vegetable oils constitute a significant product group included in many LCAs that are intended for use in decision support. This article argues that the vegetable oil market has faced major changes around the turn of the century. The aim of this study is to study the marginal supply of vegetable oil as it has shifted to palm oil and describe the product system of the new supply.

Methods

The methods for identification of marginal technologies and suppliers and for avoiding co-product allocation are based on the work of Weidema (2003). The marginal vegetable oil is identified on the basis of agricultural statistics on production volumes and prices. A co-product from palm oil production is palm kernel meal, which is used for fodder purposes where it has two main properties: protein and energy. When carrying out system expansion, these properties are taken into account.

Results

The major vegetable oils are soy oil, palm oil, rapeseed oil and sun oil. These oils are substitutable within the most common applications. Based on market trends, a shift from rapeseed oil to palm oil as the marginal vegetable oil is identified around the year 2000, when palm oil turns out to be the most competitive oil. It is recommended to regard palm oil and its dependent co-product palm kernel oil as the marginal vegetable oil. The analysis of the product system shows that the demand for 1 kg palm oil requires 4.49 kg FFB (oil palm fruit) and the displacement of 0.035 kg soybeans (marginal source of fodder protein) and 0.066 kg barley (marginal source of fodder energy).

Discussion

The identification of the marginal vegetable oil and the avoidance of co-product allocation by system expansion showed that several commodities may be affected when using the consequential approach. Hence, the product system for vegetable oils is relatively complex compared to traditional LCAs in which average technologies and suppliers are applied and in which co-product allocation is carried out by applying an allocation factor.

Conclusions

This article presents how the marginal vegetable oil can be identified and that co-product allocation between oils and meal can be avoided by system expansion, by considering the energy and protein content in the meal, which displaces a mix of the marginal sources of energy and protein for animal fodder (barley and soy meal, respectively).

Recommendations and Perspectives

The implication of a shift in the marginal vegetable oil is significant. Many LCAs on rapeseed oil have been conducted and are being used as decision support in the bio energy field. Thus, based on consequential LCA methodology, it is argued that these LCAs need to be revised, since they no longer focus on the oil actually affected.

     

Ontogeny of Cerebral Oxidative Metabolism in the Chick Embryo

Abstract: The low cerebral energy requirements of most mammals at birth reflect an immaturity of the central nervous system, and it has been suggested that energy demands in fetuses are even less well developed than in newborns. Furthermore, fetal cerebral energy requirements are presumed to be met predominantly or exclusively by anaerobic glycolysis. To clarify these issues, we investigated cerebral oxidative metabolism in 9-, 14-, 16-, and 19-day-old chick embryos and in newly hatched peeps. Animals were decapitated and quick-frozen in liquid Freon 0-5 min post-mortem. Forebrain extracts were prepared and assayed for ATP, phosphocreatine, glucose, and lactate. Alterations in these metabolites post-decapitation were used to calculate cerebral metabolic rates (Δ∼P) and rates of maximal anaerobic glycolysis (Δ lactate). Rates of lactate accumulation during cerebral ischemia increased progressively from embryonic day 9 through hatching. Cerebral metabolic rates were not different in 9-, 14-, and 16-day-old embryos, but increased steadily thereafter. The extent to which total cerebral energy utilization could be derived from anaerobic glycolysis (Δ lactate/Δ∼ P) increased from a low at day 9 (0.29) to a maximum at day 16 (0.78). The data suggest that, despite the low cerebral metabolic activity of the chick embryo, at no time during development is anaerobic glycolysis capable of entirely supporting the energy needs of the developing brain.