Evolution of a colour pattern: history,development, and selection

Patterns of melanin pigmentation in birds are extremely varied. Nevertheless it is easy to think of many patterns that are never observed, and others that frequently recur in diverse and distantly related species. Using as our model the avian genus Phylloscopus we ask how the restricted range of observed patterns might be attributable to a restricted range of variants produced by developmental perturbations. The patterns we consider consist of unmelanized patches on the wings, crown and rump on otherwise pigmented upperparts. We use reaction-diffusion models to show that gross features of the pattern can be simply predicted from considerations of embryo shape. We suggest that birds are expected to have more patterned heads, because the head region is relatively larger than other regions in the developing embryo. A comparative analysis across many species of birds and a phylogenetic analysis within the genus Phylloscopus show that the component elements of the pattern have repeatedly been lost and gained during evolution. A shift in a threshold reading could explain the appearance and disappearance of the unmelanized patches, perhaps through changes in the sensitivity of melanocytes to epidermal signals. Such threshold shifts would make the transition between patterned and unpatterned forms particularly easy once the patterns have been exposed to selection in some distant ancestor. This partitioning of the roles of selection and development implies that many features of the patterns reflect developmental mechanisms in both immediate and more distant ancestors.     

Four new sesquiterpenes from the rhizomes of Curcuma wenyujin

Four new sesquiterpenes, namely wenyujinols I – L (1 – 4), along with eleven known ones were isolated from the rhizomes of Curcuma wenyujin. The structures of new compounds were elucidated using spectroscopic and spectrometric data analyses. All isolated compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on melanin production and tyrosinase activity in B16F10 cells. Compound 1 exhibited significant inhibition against melanin production.     

一株高产黑色素香灰菌菌株的鉴定、筛选及培养条件的优化

为筛选一株产黑色素能力强的菌株并优化其培养条件。通过ITS测序鉴定11株供试菌株,以菌丝生长速度、平板L值等指标筛选出一株产黑能力强的香灰菌,并对其生长所需碳源、氮源、pH等培养条件进行优化。研究表明,11株供试菌株均为香灰菌（Hypoxylon sp.）,其中Hp.sp0006菌丝生长速度较快、菌球大且均匀、L值最低,并且发酵液黑色素含量最高。该菌株最优培养条件是,以葡萄糖为碳源、牛肉浸膏为氮源、碳氮比20∶1并添加10 mg维生素B₁,黑色素含量可达（1.21±0.17）g/L。香灰菌Hp.sp0006是一株产黑色素较高的菌株,优化后的培养基更有利于黑色素的合成,为香灰菌黑色素的开发利用奠定基础。     

Pathogenesis of Cryptococcus neoformans is Associated with Quantitative Differences in Multiple Virulence Factors

Two isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans were previously described as being highly divergent in their level of capsule synthesis in vivo and in their virulence for mice. The highly virulent isolate (NU-2) produced more capsule than a weakly virulent isolate (184A) in vitro under tissue culture conditions and in vivo. This investigation was done to determine if there were differences between the two isolates in other factors that might also contribute to virulence. Growth rate was not a factor as NU-2 grew more slowly than 184A. Based on PCR fingerprinting the two isolates were genetically different providing an opportunity to examine differences in multiple virulence traits. Quantitative analysis revealed that NU-2 expressed significantly more melanin and mannitol than did 184A. Although the isolates expressed the same capsular chemotype, NU-2 produced an additional structure reporter group (SRG)under tissue culture conditions that was not present when grown in glucose salts/urea/basal medium (GSU).Capsular polysaccharide SRGs of 184A were unaffected by shifting the growth conditions from GSU to tissue culture conditions. Our results suggest that pathogenesis of a C. neoformans strain is dictated by the quantitative expression of the strain's combined virulence traits. Regulators of the expression of these genes may be playing key roles in virulence.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Melanin pigment formation and increased UV resistance in Bacillus thuringiensis following high temperature induction

The pigment melanin is well known to protect against the damaging effects of UV radiation. In this study, we show that thirty-five of thirty-seven tested Bacillus thuringiensis strains possess the potential to produce melanin in the presence of L-tyrosin at elevated temperature (42 degrees C). These findings offer a method of protecting insecticidal toxins produced by B. thuringiensis from UV degredation and may therefore have important applications in the field of crop protection. Toxicity assays on Heliothis armigera suggested that the insecticidal activity of B. thuringiensis that produced melanin was significantly higher after UV irradiation than when melanin was not produced.     

Cell-intrinsic melanin fails to protect melanocytes from ultraviolet-mutagenesis in the absence of epidermal melanin

Melanin is a free-radical scavenger, antioxidant, and broadband absorber of ultraviolet (UV) radiation which protects the skin from environmental carcinogenesis. However, melanin synthesis and UV-induced reactive melanin species are also implicated in melanocyte genotoxicity. Here, we attempted to reconcile these disparate functions of melanin using a UVB-sensitive, NRAS-mutant mouse model, TpN. We crossed TpN mice heterozygous for an inactivating mutation in Tyrosinase to produce albino and black littermates on a C57BL/6J background. These animals were then exposed to a single UVB dose on postnatal day three when keratinocytes in the skin have yet to be melanized. Approximately one-third (35%) of black mice were protected from UVB-accelerated tumor formation. However, melanoma growth rates, tumor mutational burdens, and gene expression profiles were similar in melanomas from black and albino mice. Skin from albino mice contained more cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) positive cells than black mice 1-h post-irradiation. However, this trend gradually reversed over time with CPDs becoming more prominent in black than albino melanocytes at 48 h. These results show that in the absence of epidermal pigmentation, melanocytic melanin limits the tumorigenic effects of acute UV exposure but fails to protect melanocytes from UVB-induced mutagenesis.     

Genetic analyses ofCochliobolus heterostrophus albino mutant with deficiencies at two loci

A new class of albino mutant ofCochliobolus heterostrophus was isolated. Its colony color was indistinguishable from that of albino mutants previously reported. Application of the melanin intermediate scytalone induced this mutant to pigment slightly, but not completely. Genetic analyses showed that the mutant had two deficient genes. When only one of these genes was deficient, the colony color was indistinguishable from the wild type, whereas deficiency of both genes resulted in the albino phenotype. These deficiencies lie upstream of scytalone biosynthesis. These genes were designated asCal1 andCal2.     

Skin color and climate in Central Africa: A comparison of three populations

In order to test the hypothesis that in Central Africa variation in melanin concentration in the human skin largely results from adaptation to ultraviolet radiation, skin reflectance of the inner surface of the arm was measured at 685 nm in three samples: a sample of 415 Sara, who have a long history of habitation in the very sunny savanna of Chad; a sample of 278 Oto, a Konda caste that migrated to the equatorial forest of Zaire less than two millennia ago;and a sample of 122 Twa, a Konda caste that has been in the equatorial forest longer than the Oto. The predicted Sara-Oto-Twa sequence was confirmed and is at least partly genetically based.The study presented here is a part of an International Biological Programme/Human Adaptability Program project, which has been supported by the French and Belgian International Biological Programme committees, by Recherche Coopérative sur Programme 117 of Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, in the Chad by Institut National Tchadien pour les Sciences Humaines, and in Zaire by Office National pour la Recherche et le Développement and Institut pour Recherche Scientifique au Congo.     

Intraspecific variation in wing and pupal melanization in copper butterflies (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Melanin is a widespread pigment causing variation in skin darkness, with darker phenotypes typically reaching higher equilibrium temperatures than lighter ones. Therefore, selection is expected to favour darker phenotypes in colder environments. In the present study, we show intraspecific variation in pupal (and wing) melanization along an altitudinal gradient in two species of copper butterflies. Both, pupal and wing melanization increased with increasing altitude. Consistent with the thermal melanism hypothesis, darker (high-altitude) pupae reached higher equilibrium temperatures than paler (low-altitude) ones. However, as temperature differences were rather small despite pronounced differences in melanization, we cannot rule out that factors (e.g. ultraviolet protection, disease resistance) other than temperature comprise the principal selective agents. Mechanistically, variation in melanization might be related to variation in hormone titres, as demonstrated by low-altitude pupae showing higher ecdysteroid and juvenile hormone titres compared to high-altitude ones. Furthermore, we report sex differences in wing melanization, with males being darker than females, which is potentially related to a higher flight activity of males.  © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2009, 98 , 301–312.     

Fonsecaea monophora色素毒力性研究

目的探讨黑色素是否为Fonsecaea monophora的一个重要毒力因子。方法从Fonsecaea monophora的分生孢子突变株(CBS122845)传代接种产生白色突变株(CBS 125149)。透射电子显微镜(TEM)下观察到黑色素是位于分生孢子细胞壁表面上的电子致密颗粒。通过碱-酸法提取来自两个不同菌株的细胞壁色素颗粒。建立不同菌株或色素颗粒与活化巨噬细胞(RAW264.7)共培养体系,通过实时荧光相对定量PCR检测i-NOS基因的表达,格里斯法检测一氧化氮(NO)的表达结果,ELISA检测IL-12、TNF-α、IL-10的表达结果。结果色素型分生孢子和其色素颗粒能够降低巨噬细胞诱导型一氧化氮合酶(I-NOS)基因的表达和抑制一氧化氮的合成(P<0.05)。提高Th2细胞因子表达,同时抑制Th1细胞因子表达(P<0.05)。结论黑色素可能是Fonsecaea monophora逃避巨噬细胞对其氧化应激的重要机制。同时黑色素下调Th1免疫应答,可能利于真菌的持续感染。