Production of Reactive Oxygen Species and Release of l-Glutamate During Superoxide Anion-Induced Cell Death of Cerebellar Granule Neurons

Abstract: Enhanced production of superoxide anion (O₂⁻) is considered to play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of CNS neurons. Here, we report that O₂⁻ generated by xanthine (XA) + xanthine oxidase (XO) triggered cell death associated with nuclear condensation and DNA fragmentation in cerebellar granule neuron. XA + XO induced significant increases in amounts of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) before initiating loss of cell viability, as determined by measurement of 6-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, di(acetoxymethyl ester) (C-DCDHF-DA) for O₂⁻ and other ROS and hydroethidine (HEt) specifically for O₂⁻ by using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. Catalase, but not superoxide dismutase (SOD), significantly protected granule neurons from the XA + XO-induced cell death. Catalase effectively reduced C-DCDHF-DA but not HEt fluorescence, whereas SOD reduced HEt but not C-DCDHF-DA fluorescence, indicating that HEt and C-DCDHF-DA fluorescence correlated with O₂⁻ and hydrogen peroxide, respectively. The NMDA antagonist MK-801 prevented the death. XA + XO induced an increase in l -glutamate release from cerebellar granule neurons. These results indicate that elevation of O₂⁻ induces cell death associated with increasing ROS production in cerebellar granule neurons and that XA + XO enhanced release of l -glutamate.     

Evidence for a Hyperexcitability State of Staggerer Mutant Mice Macrophages

We recently reported an abnormal production of interleukin-1 (IL-1) in peripheral macrophages of several neurological mutant mice that exhibit patterns of neuronal degeneration, especially in the cerebellum. After in vitro activation by lipopolysaccharide acid (LPS), these macrophages hyperexpress IL-1 beta mRNA and hyperproduce IL-1 protein in comparison with +/+ controls. In the present study, focused on the staggerer mutant mice, we investigate if this genetic dysregulation is specific for IL-1 beta or if it reflects a generalized hyperexcitability of these macrophages. The hyperexpression of IL-1 beta mRNA in sg/sg macrophages is present whatever the duration of LPS stimulation, even for periods as short as 15 min, although it reaches a maximum after 4 h of stimulation. The hyperinducibility of sg/sg macrophages is observed even when very low doses of LPS are used (0.01 microgram/ml) and reaches its maximum for 5 micrograms/ml LPS. Synthetic molecules (muramyl dipeptides), such as N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine or murabutide, known as macrophage activators, are also efficient in revealing the cytokine hyperexpression in sg/sg macrophages. In addition, hyperexpression of two other cytokines, i.e., tumor necrosis factor-alpha and IL-1 alpha mRNAs, is also detected in LPS-stimulated macrophages of mutant mice. Finally, the effect of an inhibitor of protein synthesis, cycloheximide, is similar in +/+ and sg/sg macrophages. As a whole, these data lead us to conclude that the sg/sg macrophages are in a state of general hyperexcitability when compared with +/+ ones.     

Intermediate filaments regulate astrocyte motility.

Intermediate filaments (IFs) compose, together with actin filaments and microtubules, the cytoskeleton and they exhibit a remarkable but still enigmatic cell-type specificity. In a number of cell types, IFs seem to be instrumental in the maintenance of the mechanical integrity of cells and tissues. The function of IFs in astrocytes has so far remained elusive. We have recently reported that glial scar formation following brain or spinal cord injury is impaired in mice deficient in glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin. These mice lack IFs in reactive astrocytes that are normally pivotal in the wound repair process. Here we show that reactive astrocytes devoid of IFs exhibit clear morphological changes and profound defects in cell motility thereby revealing a novel function for IFs.     

钙稳态调节蛋白2 Q87A突变增加抑郁易感性

钙稳态调节蛋白2（calcium homeostasis modulator 2,Calhm2）参与钙离子活动和ATP释放的调控. 本实验室的前期工作已经证实,Calhm2可以介导星形胶质细胞ATP的释放,在抑郁症的发生发展中起到重要作用. 为了进一步探究Calhm2在抑郁症发生发展中的分子机制,本文首先预测了Calhm2的ATP结合位点,即位于第87位点的谷氨酰胺（Q87）,并将其突变为丙氨酸（A）,建立了一个携带calhm2突变（Q87A）的小鼠品系. 随后,通过对原代星形胶质细胞的胞内和胞外ATP检测,发现Calhm2 Q87A突变导致星形胶质细胞ATP的释放下降;此外,通过对小鼠大脑海马切片的ATP检测,发现Calhm2 Q87A突变小鼠海马组织的ATP释放较正常小鼠下降;最后,通过给予慢性温和不可预知应激（chronic unpredictable mild stress,CUMS）来诱发小鼠抑郁样行为,发现Calhm2 Q87A突变小鼠抑郁样行为相对野生型小鼠表现得更为严重. 综上所述,本文发现Q87位点对Calhm2介导的星形胶质细胞ATP释放发挥重要作用,该位点的突变增加了外界压力刺激诱导抑郁样行为的易感性,进一步明确了Calhm2蛋白在抑郁症发生发展中的分子机制,为抑郁症相关疾病的诊断和治疗提供了新的理论基础.     

Balb/C乳鼠小脑Purkinje细胞原代培养方法

目的建立一种简单、有效的Balb/C乳鼠小脑Purkinje细胞原代培养方法,并初步研究其细胞电生理特性。方法钝性分离生后24h内的乳鼠小脑,采用低浓度胰蛋白酶加机械吹打法获得单细胞悬液,然后用含10%胎牛血清的DMEM/F12培养,24h候更换为1%N2+1%T3+1%谷氨酰胺的DMEM/F12维持培养,3-5d天后进行细胞免疫荧光染色,7-9d天后用全细胞膜片钳单通道法记录钙电流。结果该方法培养的神经元形态典型,细胞学鉴定阳性率高(70%),并能记录到钙通道电流。结论该方法取材容易,操作简便,且培养出的原代Purkinje细胞生长状态较好,神经元的活性较高,可用于电生理研究。     

STIM and ORAI proteins in the nervous system

Stromal interaction molecules (STIM) 1 and 2 are sensors of the calcium concentration in the endoplasmic reticulum. Depletion of endoplasmic reticulum calcium stores activates STIM proteins which, in turn, bind and open calcium channels in the plasma membrane formed by the proteins ORAI1, ORAI2, and ORAI3. The resulting store-operated calcium entry (SOCE), mostly controlled by the principal components STIM1 and ORAI1, has been particularly characterized in immune cells. In the nervous system, all STIM and ORAI homologs are expressed. This review summarizes current knowledge on distribution and function of STIM and ORAI proteins in central neurons and glial cells, i.e. astrocytes and microglia. STIM2 is required for SOCE in hippocampal synapses and cortical neurons, whereas STIM1 controls calcium store replenishment in cerebellar Purkinje neurons. In microglia, STIM1, STIM2, and ORAI1 regulate migration and phagocytosis. The isoforms ORAI2 and ORAI3 are candidates for SOCE channels in neurons and astrocytes, respectively. Due to the role of SOCE in neuronal and glial calcium homeostasis, dysfunction of STIM and ORAI proteins may have consequences for the development of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease.     

Glutathione transferase mu 2 protects glioblastoma cells against aminochrome toxicity by preventing autophagy and lysosome dysfunction

U373MG cells constitutively express glutathione S-transferase mu 2 (GSTM2) and exhibit ³H-dopamine uptake, which is inhibited by 2 µM of nomifensine and 15 µM of estradiol. We generated a stable cell line (U373MGsiGST6) expressing an siRNA against GSTM2 that resulted in low GSTM2 expression (26% of wild-type U373MG cells). A significant increase in cell death was observed when U373MGsiGST6 cells were incubated with 50 µM purified aminochrome (18-fold increase) compared with wild-type cells. The incubation of U373MGsiGST6 cells with 75 µM aminochrome resulted in the formation of autophagic vacuoles containing undigested cellular components, as determined using transmission electron microscopy. A significant increase in autophagosomes was determined by measuring endogenous LC3-II, a significant decrease in cell death was observed in the presence of bafilomycin A₁, and a significant increase in cell death was observed in the presence of trehalose. A significant increase in LAMP2 immunostaining was observed, a significant decrease in bright red fluorescence of lysosomes with acridine orange was observed, and bafilomycin A₁ pretreatment reduced the loss of lysosome acidity. A significant increase in cell death was observed in the presence of lysosomal protease inhibitors. Aggregation of TUBA/α-tubulin (tubulin, α) and SQSTM1 protein accumulation were also observed. Moreover, a significant increase in the number of lipids droplets was observed compared with U373MG cells with normal expression of GSTM2. These results support the notion that GSTM2 is a protective enzyme against aminochrome toxicity in astrocytes and that aminochrome cell death in U373MGsiGST6 cells involves autophagic-lysosomal dysfunction.