Towards efficient N cycling in intensive maize: role of cover crops and application methods of digestate liquid fraction

Digestate, a by-product of biogas production, is widely recognized as a promising renewable nitrogen (N) source with high potential to replace synthetic fertilizers. Yet, inefficient digestate use can lead to pollutant N losses as ammonia (NH₃) volatilization, nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and nitrate (${\mathrm{NO}}_3^{-}$) leaching. Cover crops (CCs) may reduce some of these losses and recycle the N back into the soil after incorporation, but the effect on the N balance depends on the CC species. In a one-year field study, we tested two application methods (i.e., surface broadcasting, BDC; and shallow injection, INJ) of the liquid fraction of separated co-digested cattle slurry (digestate liquid fraction [DLF]), combined with different winter cover crop (CC) options (i.e., rye, white mustard or bare fallow), as starter fertilizer for maize. Later, side-dressing with urea was required to fulfil maize N-requirements. We tested treatment effects on yield, N-uptake, N-use efficiency parameters, and N-losses in the form of N₂O emissions and ${\mathrm{NO}}_3^{-}$ leaching. CC development and biomass production were strongly affected by their contrasting frost tolerance, with spring-regrowth for rye, while mustard was winter killed. After the CCs, injection of DLF increased N₂O emissions significantly compared with BDC (emission factor of 2.69% vs. 1.66%). Nitrous oxide emissions accounted for a small part (11%–13%) of the overall yield-scaled N losses (0.46–0.97 kg N Mg grain⁻¹). The adoption of CCs reduced fall ${\mathrm{NO}}_3^{-}$ leaching, being 51% and 64% lower for mustard and rye than under bare soil. In addition, rye reduced ${\mathrm{NO}}_3^{-}$ leaching during spring and summer after termination by promoting N immobilization, thus leading to −57% lower annual leaching losses compared with mustard. DLF application method modified N-loss pathways, but not the cumulative yield-scaled N losses. Overall, these insights contribute to inform an evidence-based design of cropping systems in which nutrients are recycled more efficiently.     

Requirement of divalent cations for photoactivation of the laten water-oxidation system in intact chloroplasts from flashed leaves

The effects of divalent cations on photoactivation of the latent water-oxidation system in intact chloroplasts isolated from wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) leaves grown under intermittent flash illumination were investigated by using A23187, an ionophore for divalent cations, and the following results were obtained. (a) Photoactivation in the intact chloroplasts was inhibited by A23187, but was restored on addition of a low concentration of Mn²⁺ (10 μM). (b) A high concentration of Mn²⁺ (70 μM) was inhibitory, in contrast, for photoactivation, but the inhibition was restored by the coexistence of a suitable concentration of Ca²⁺ (5 mM). (c) The Ca²⁺-dependent restoration was inhibited by a high concentration of Mg²⁺ or Sr²⁺, but the inhibition was restored by the coexistence of Ca²⁺. (d) Kinetic analyses of these competitive effects between divalent cations revealed that: (i) High concentration of Ca²⁺ inhibits photoactivation in competition with Mn²⁺. (ii) High concentration of Mn²⁺ inhibits photoactivation in competition with Ca²⁺. (iii) High concentration of Mg²⁺ affects photoactivation by inhibiting Ca²⁺-dependent restoration in competition with Ca²⁺. Based on these results, we propose that the latent water-oxidation center has two binding sites, each specific for Mn²⁺ and Ca²⁺, and that photoactivation takes place in the center having both Mn²⁺ and Ca²⁺ on their respective binding sites.     

Bioinspired molecular adhesive for water‐resistant oxygen indicator films

Mussels can attach themselves to nearly all types of hard surfaces in wet environments. Such attractive adhesive ability of mussels is believed to rely on the amino acid composition of proteins found near the plaque–substrate interface. Dopamine (DA) is identified as a simplified mimic of mussel proteins, which are rich in 3,4‐dihydroxy‐l ‐phenylalanine and lysine, because it contains both catechol and amine functional groups. In this work, we have first applied this bioinspired adhesive to tackle a dye leaching problem of colorimetric oxygen indicator films, which are widely used to ensure the absence of oxygen inside the package of oxygen‐sensitive materials. Simple immersion of packaging films into a DA solution resulted in poly(DA) deposition, decreasing the water contact angle of the films from 105° to 65°. The poly(DA) coating could reduce the thionine leakage of the UV‐activated oxygen indicator film. The effects of poly(DA) coating were found to be dependent on the DA solution pH, the coating time, and the DA concentration. The film resistant to dye leaching lost its dye color by 5 min UVB irradiation and regained the color in the presence of oxygen, demonstrating that it functioned successfully as UV‐activated oxygen indicators. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 29: 513–519, 2013     

Transport of K+ and other cations across phospholipid membranes by nonesterified fatty acids

The rate of change of internal pH and transmembrane potential has been monitored in liposomes following the external addition of various cation salts. Oleic acid increases the transmembrane movement of H⁺ following the imposition of a K⁺ gradient. An initial fast change in internal pH is seen followed by a slower rate of alkalinization. High concentrations of the fatty acid enhance the rate comparable to that seen in the presence of nigericin in contrast to the effect of FCCP (carbonyl cyanide p-(tri-fluoromethoxy)phenyl hydrazone) which saturates at an intermediate value. The ability of nonesterified fatty acids to catalyze the movement of cations across the liposome membrane increases with the degree of unsaturation and decreases with increasing chain length. Li and Na salts cause a similar initial fast pH change but have less effect on the subsequent slower rate. Similarly, the main effect of divalent cation salts is on the initial fast change. The membrane potential can enhance or inhibit cation transport depending on its polarity with respect to the cation gradient. It is concluded that nonesterified fatty acids have the capability to complex with, and transport, a variety of cations across phospholipid bilayers. However, they do not act simply as proton/cation exchangers analogous to nigericin nor as protonophores analogous to FCCP. The full cycle of ionophoric action involves a combination of both functions.The authors would like to thank P. Nicholts (Brock University, Canada) for helpful discussions. M.A.S. received a Science and Engineering Research Council studentship and C.E.C. acknowledges the award of a King's College London fellowship followed by a Medical Research Council Training Fellowship.     

Digestion of algae by Stegastes nigricans and Amphiprion akindynos (Pisces: Pomacentridae), with an evaluation of methods used in digestibility studies

An investigation of the digestive physiology of two species of damselfish (family Pomacentridae) was undertaken, comparing a herbivore Stegastes nigricans with an omnivore/ planktivore Amphiprion akindynos . Apparent digestibility of Enteromorpha flexuosa (Chlorophyta) was calculated using both total collection and a range of ash-marker methods. In addition, Van Soest's system of fibre analysis was used to determine the digestibility of algal cell walls. A comparison of total collection methods (comparing food intake v. faeces output) with ash-marker methods showed that the calculated digestibility estimate will depend on the method used. Total dry matter digestibilities varied from 75 to 20% for S. nigricans and from 79 to 15% for A. akindynos . Comparable ranges were obtained for organic matter, cell wall, nitrogen and soluble carbohydrate. Digestibility estimates calculated using total collection methods were larger and less variable than estimates calculated using ash-marker methods. Despite major methodological variation, there was no significant difference in the digestibility of algae between the two species.     

Effect of Simulated Rainfall on Efficacy and Leaching of Two Formulations of Fenamiphos

Recoverable fenamiphos in the soil and residue in squash following different simulated rainfall treatments after nematicide application were determined in a 2-year study. Efficacy of fenamiphos also was evaluated. Fenamiphos treatments (3 SC and 15 G) were broadcast (6.7 kg a.i./ha) over plots and incorporated into the top 15 cm of soil immediately before planting ''Dixie Hybrid'' squash. Simulated rainfall treatments of 0, 2.5, and 5.0 cm water were applied 1 day after fenamiphos application. Soil samples from 0- to 8-cm, 8- to 15-cm, and 15- to 30-cm soil depths were collected 1 day after the simulated rainfall applications and analyzed for fenamiphos, fenamiphos sulfoxide (FSO), and fenamiphos sulfone (FSO₂). Squash was analyzed for total fenamiphos residue. Greater concentrations of fenamiphos were present in the 0- to 8-cm soil layer following application of 15 G than 3 SC formulation. Simulated rainfall treatments did not alter fenamiphos concentrations in any soil layer (except for the 0- to 8-cm depth in 1992) or concentration of FSO and total fenamiphos residue in the 15- to 30-cm soil layer. Root-gall indices were greater from untreated than most fenamiphos-treated plots, but were not affected by formulations of fenamiphos or simulated rainfall treatments. Concentrations of total residue in squash ranged from 1 to 4 μg FSO₂/g.     

Leaching of Cd,Zn, Pb,and Cu in Packed and Undisturbed Columns of Soils Affected by the Spill from a Pyrite Mine in the South of Spain

A study has been made of the leaching of Cd, Zn, Pb, and Cu in three representative soils within the zone affected by the spill from a pyrite mine in Aznalcollar (Sevilla, Spain) employing packed soil columns. According to the breakthrough and cumulative leaching curves, the relative mobilities of the different toxic elements in the columns are as follows: Cd> Zn> Cu> Pb. The effect of leaching on the distribution of metals as a function of depth using intact soil cores was also studied. The results showed that the soils themselves have a good capacity for immobilizing the soluble fraction of the elements from the spilled mud. This capacity varied as follows: clayey soil with a high carbonate content > clayey soil with a moderate carbonate content > sandy-clay loam soil with a low carbonate content. However, sandy soils with a low carbonate content could pose a risk to groundwater if initial contamination was high. These results could be considered during the evaluation of remedial technologies for the immobilization of soil metals.     

Effect of polyamines and cations on the in vitro methylation of histones

Na⁺ (0.05–0.15 M) increases both the rate and extent of methylation of chromosomal bound histone H4, while spermidine markedly inhibits this reaction. The effects of spermidine could be mimicked by increasing the concentration of Mg²⁺ or Ca²⁺ to 5–10 mM. At the concentrations listed above, these cations have no significant effect on the methylation of free or chromosomal bound histone H3, nor do they affect the rate or extent of methylation of soluble histone H4. Apparently, the accessibility of histone H4 to the methyltransferase is influenced by chromatin structure. Increasing concentrations of Na⁺ alter the conformation of chromatin (DNA) in such a way as to expose lysine residues in the N-terminal region of histone H4 to the methyltransferase, whereas Mg²⁺ or spermidine acts in an opposite manner.     

The stacking of the thylakoids of two leguminosae. Differential responses to H+ and divalent cations

The stacking of the thylakoids of lupine and horse bean has been studied by the digitonin method in relation to the concentration of H⁺, Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺. (1) The isolectric point appears to be 4.7 for the two species. At this pH, Ca²⁺ has no effect on the stacking of the lupine thylakoids but it lowers the stacking of those of horse bean. (2) At pH 7.6, for any given Ca²⁺ concentration, the horse bean thylakoids fix a lesser amount of Ca²⁺ than those of lupine but they are more stacked. (3) The surface potential has been estimated by the use of the Gouy-Chapman model, modified to take account of H⁺ and Ca²⁺ binding. Simulation of the experiments indicates that the results may be explained by supposing that (i) the anionic groups are less numerous on the horse bean thylakoids than on those of lupine, (ii) they are arranged such that the affinity for the binding of Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ is higher for horse bean and virtually nil for lupine, and (iii) the divalent cation binding per se promotes the stacking when the coulombic repulsion is sufficiently weakened by screening and binding.     

A method for determining the cation-exchange capacity of organic materials

Summary A method for determining the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) of organic matter was developed by modifying the BaCl₂ triethanolamine, pH 8.1, method used in calcareous soils. Problems arising from the presence of sulphates and losses of water soluble organic matter were solved. The proposed method for organic matter is comparable to that of soil in terms of sensitivity, reproducibility and in the time necessary for each analysis. In the second part of the work the CEC's of diverse organic samples were determined and found to be reproducible with an average coefficient of variation of 3.56%.