Efficient establishment of pure cultures of yellow chanterelle Cantharellus anzutake from ectomycorrhizal root tips,and morphological characteristics of ectomycorrhizae and cultured mycelium

Species of fleshy yellow Cantharellus are known as chanterelles, which are among the most popular wild edible mycorrhizal mushrooms in the world. However, pure culture isolates of Cantharellus are rare. We report an efficient isolation technique of the Japanese golden chanterelle, Cantharellus anzutake, from its ectomycorrhizal root tips. Field-sampled fresh ectomycorrhizal root tips of C. anzutake on various hosts such as pines, spruce, and oaks were vortexed with 0.005% Tween 80 solution, surface sterilized with 1% calcium hypochlorite solution, rinsed with sterilized distilled water, and placed on modified Norkrans’ C (MNC) agar plate medium. Most ectomycorrhizal root tips of C. anzutake produced yellowish mycelial colonies within a few months. In contrast, tissue isolation from basidiomata provided limited cultures of C. anzutake but much contamination of bacteria and molds, even on media that contained antibiotics. The established C. anzutake cultures had clamp connections on the hyphae and contained intracellular oily droplets. These cultured isolates were identified as C. anzutake by sequence analysis of the rRNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and translation elongation factor EF1-alpha (tef-1) genes.     

Wie V?gel ihr Auge schützen: Zur Arbeitsteilung von Oberlid, Unterlid und Nickhaut

Zusammenfassung Vögel schließen ihre Augen im Schlaf in einer für die großen Taxa typischen Weise. Entweder geht das Unterlid hoch wie bei der Mehrzahl der Arten, oder das Oberlid bewegt sich abwärts (Psittaciformes, Trochili), oder aber beide Lider schließen die Lidspalte (Strigiformes, Caprimulgi). Solche Kenntnis fehlt von den meisten Ordnungen, oder die Handbücher geben falsche oder widersprüchliche Information. Neben dem tonischen, schlafbegleitenden Augenschluss bewegen Vögel im Wachzustand eines oder beide Lider phasisch und meist schnell. Dieser häufige Lidschlag ist durch ein anderes Bewegungsmuster und durch eine andere Funktion gekennzeichnet. Photodokumente und genaue Beobachtungen führen erstmals zu einer funktionellen Deutung, der zufolge der Lidschlag das Auge mechanisch schützt. Droht dem Auge von vorn oder von oben eine potentielle Schädigung, so schließt das Oberlid bei Tauben, Eulen und Singvögeln, im Sprühwasser gleichzeitig auch das Unterlid (Cinclus). Der unabweisbarste Beleg stammt aus dem Vergleich des Aufpickens dorniger, sperriger Beuteinsekten mit Oberlidschluss gegenüber dem Aufnehmen harmloser Beeren ohne jede Lidbewegung (Gallicolumba). Weiter ist die Antwort des Oberlids, anders als beim Unterlid, öfter seitengerecht reizorientiert, so dass die Bewegung einseitig sein kann. Zudem kann der Schluss des Oberlids auch bei stationärem (Feind-)reiz seitenweise alternieren (Otus). Ausnahmsweise tritt eine adaptive Asymmetrie auch während kurzer Zeiten der Augenöffnung zum Spähen nach Feinden im Schlaf auf, und zwar hier beim Unterlid der bedrohten Seite (Anas).Eine neue Funktion wird auch dem Schlag der Nickhaut (Membrana nictitans) zugeschrieben. Traditionell als die Cornea reinhaltendes Organ gesehen, dient auch sie dem mechanischen Schutz des Auges. Auch sie kann seitenrichtig reizorientiert schlagen, doch ist hierüber wenig bekannt. Dieselben Reize, die den Lidschlag auslösen, können bei anderen Arten die Nickhaut schlagen lassen. Ihre Schlagrate ist schwierig zu messen, da viele Schläge (nur?) mit denen des Oberlides zusammenfallen und so verborgen bleiben (Otus). Diese Synchronie ist mit keiner der bisher vorgeschlagenen Funktionen erklärbar, ebenso wenig wie die verborgenen Schläge bei tonischem Augenschluss (Passer).Die Annahme einer Ausschaltung störender Sinnesinformation, z.B. während rascher Kopfbewegungen, durch die Nickhaut lässt sich aus vier Gründen verwerfen. Die Zunahme der Schlagrate während des Feindalarms (Ficedula) bleibt funktionell unerklärt.In einer bei Vögeln einzigartigen Weise schützt der Samtkleiber (Sitta azurea) sein Auge durch Zusammenziehen des nackten Augenrings (Lidblende), wenn er rücklings an der Unterseite von Ästen nahrungssuchend einem ständigen Regen von losgelösten Rindenteilchen u. ä. ausgesetzt ist.Sekundär haben sich die Bewegungen eines oder beider Lider oder aber der Nickhaut zu optischen Signalen entwickelt, und zwar durch kontrastierende Feder- oder Nickhautfärbung. Die betreffenden blitzschnell aufleuchtenden Signale sind an den Paarpartner (Cinclus, Corvidae,Cepphus), an mögliche Feinde (Anas) oder an bisher unbekannte Empfänger gesichtet (Ficedula).

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On how birds protect their eyes: division of labour between the upper lid, lower lid and the nictitating membrane

Summary Birds close their eyes during sleep in various taxon-specific ways. Either the lower lid moves up as in the majority of species including the Anseres, Accipitres, Falconiformes, Galli, Charadrioidea, Columbiformes, and Oscines; or the upper lid moves down (Psittaciformes, Trochili), or both lids close the eye as in Strigiformes and Caprimulgi. Such information is absent for most orders, or the handbooks provide wrong or conflicting information. Beside the tonic, sleep-related eye closure, birds move one or both lids in a phasic, usually swift mode when awake. These frequent lid movements are typified by their different co-ordination and function. Photographic and observational evidence strongly suggests mechanical protection of the eye as a novel function (where this had not been proposed previously). When an impact from any object is imminent from in front of or above the head, the upper lid shuts in pigeons, owls and oscines, and with water splashing, the lower lid as well (Cinclus). The most convincing evidence for mechanical protection comes from the deployment of the upper lid during the picking up of spiny insect prey as compared to easy-to-swallow berries, when both lids stay at rest (Gallicolumba).Further, the response of the upper lid is more stimulus-oriented so that both upper lids move asymmetrically. But there is also a unilateral, alternating winking of the upper lids when causative (predator) stimuli remain stationary. This never occurs with the lower lids (Otus). As an exception, an adaptive asymmetry occurs during brief phases of unilateral scanning interrupting sleep, designed to detect approaching predators. This scanning involves the lower lid (Anas).A new function is also attributed to the beating of the nictitating membrane (Membrana nictitans). Traditionally viewed as a cleaning device it also serves to protect the eye from mechanical impact, and it also can be tuned to the side from where danger is threatening, though by and large there is a dearth of information from avian taxa. The non-visually elicited action of the membrane seems always to be bilateral (Falco, Harpia). The very stimuli eliciting the blinking of a lid can, in different species, trigger the beat of the membrane, and can cause it to move tonically (Falco). The membrane beats at a rate difficult to measure since many of its beats coincide with the blinking of the upper lid and thus remain hidden (Otus). This coincidence is difficult to account for by any function discussed so far, as are the many hidden beats during tonic eye closure with the lids (Passer).The hypothesis according to which the action of the membrane is filtering out undesirable retinal stimulation during e.g. rapid head movements is dismissed on four different grounds. The increase of the membrane activity during predator alarm (Ficedula) is functionally unaccounted for.In a fashion unique among birds, the Blue Nuthatch (Sitta azurea) protects its eyes by contracting the naked skin surrounding the eye, thereby minimizing the exposure of the cornea; during foraging along the underside of branches, a continual rain of bark particles and debris jeopardizes unimpeded vision.Secondarily, one or both lids or the nictitating membrane have taken on the function of optic signals by virtue of contrasting feather colour or coloration. The phasic (flashing) signal movements involved are directed at the pair mate (Cinclus, Corvidae,Cepphus), predators (Anas) or at unknown parties (Ficedula).

Dies ist Veröffentlichung Nr. 29 des Philippine Endemic Species Conservation Project der Zoologischen Gesellschaft Frankfurt.     

Development of distylous flowers and investment of biomass in male and female function in Palicourea padifolia (Rubiaceae)

Knowledge of developmental pathways for achieving differences in style and anther heights, in concert with those of ancillary features accompanied with data in regard to biomass investment to male and female function, provide an excellent opportunity for examining the developmental correlations between primary and ancillary floral traits so as to understand the evolution of heterostyly. The ontogenetic relationships between bud length and anther height and between bud length and style height, and between bud length versus bud width, anther length, and number of pollen grains per anther for long-styled (LS) and short-styled (SS) morphs of P. PADIFOLIA are described. We also described the ontogenetic biomass allocation to male and female function and to corolla with elongation of buds harvested at regular intervals. We observed an early termination of stylar growth in SS buds, whereas LS styles steadily increased in size. Morph differences for relative growth rates were significant for anther height, anther length, and pollen number but not for bud width. Bud width and anther length had a negative allometric relationship with bud elongation. The relationship between bud length and number of pollen grains per anther was positive and morph differences in pollen number were detected at later stages of development. An increase in corolla mass involved a disproportionate allocation to the female function in SS flowers and male allocation was similar for the two morphs over the course of development. Our results are consistent with theoretical and empirical data for distylous species with an approach herkogamous ancestor, and with the more general hypothesis of ontogenetic lability of heterostyly, in which morph differences in style and anther heights are achieved in various ways. Variations observed in sexual investment between floral morphs suggest differences in sex expression during flower development.     

Structural and functional insights of Wilson disease copper-transporting ATPase

Wilson disease is an autosomal recessive disorder of copper metabolism. The gene for this disorder has been cloned and identified to encode a copper-transporting ATPase (ATP7B), a member of a large family of cation transporters, the P-type ATPases. In addition to the core elements common to all P-type ATPases, the Wilson copper-transporting ATPase has a large cytoplasmic N-terminus comprised six heavy metal associated (HMA) domains, each of which contains the copper-binding sequence motif GMT/HCXXC. Extensive studies addressing the functional, regulatory, and structural aspects of heavy metal transport by heavy metal transporters in general, have offered great insights into copper transport by Wilson copper-transporting ATPase. The findings from these studies have been used together with homology modeling of the Wilson disease copper-transporting ATPases based on the X-ray structure of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium-ATPase, to present a hypothetical model of the mechanism of copper transport by copper-transporting ATPases.     

Optimization of compressive loading parameters to mimic in vivo cervical spine kinematics in vitro

The human cervical spine supports substantial compressive load in vivo. However, the traditional in vitro testing methods rarely include compressive loads, especially in investigations of multi-segment cervical spine constructs. Previously, a systematic comparison was performed between the standard pure moment with no compressive loading and published compressive loading techniques (follower load – FL, axial load – AL, and combined load – CL). The systematic comparison was structured a priori using a statistical design of experiments and the desirability function approach, which was chosen based on the goal of determining the optimal compressive loading parameters necessary to mimic the segmental contribution patterns exhibited in vivo. The optimized set of compressive loading parameters resulted in in vitro segmental rotations that were within one standard deviation and 10% of average percent error of the in vivo mean throughout the entire motion path. As hypothesized, the values for the optimized independent variables of FL and AL varied dynamically throughout the motion path. FL was not necessary at the extremes of the flexion–extension (FE) motion path but peaked through the neutral position, whereas, a large negative value of AL was necessary in extension and increased linearly to a large positive value in flexion. Although further validation is required, the long-term goal is to develop a “physiologic” in vitro testing method, which will be valuable for evaluating adjacent segment effect following spinal fusion surgery, disc arthroplasty instrumentation testing and design, as well as mechanobiology experiments where correct kinematics and arthrokinematics are critical.     

Effects of Hatchery Rearing on Brain Structures of Rainbow Trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss

In this study, we contrast brain morphology from hatchery and wild reared stocks to examine the hypothesis that in salmonid fishes, captive rearing produces changes in brain development. Using rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, as a model, we measured eight regions of the salmonid brain to examine differences between wild and hatchery reared fish. We find using multiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA), analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and discriminant function analysis (DFA) that the brains of hatchery reared fish are relatively smaller in several critical measures than their wild counterparts. Our work may suggest a mechanistic basis for the observed vulnerability of hatchery fish to predation and their general low survival upon release into the wild. Our results are the first to highlight the effects of hatchery rearing on changes in brain development inbreak fishes.