海洋微生物铁载体的研究进展

铁是影响初级生产力的主要限制性因子之一,其在海洋环境中的分布具有空间异质性。由于铁在海洋中主要以溶解度较低、易沉降的三价态(Fe³⁺)形式存在,因此溶解铁对海洋生物而言是一种稀缺资源。为了获得生命代谢所需的铁,微生物进化出多种铁摄取的策略来满足需求,其中铁载体(siderophores)是最典型的代表。铁载体作为重要的代谢辅因子,除了铁循环以外,也强烈影响着其他元素的循环。基于铁载体的重要性,深入理解它的合成、转运和调控机制是系统认识海洋铁循环和生命过程的重要环节之一。本文以近20年的研究为重点,总结了铁载体的最新进展,包括其类型、合成/运输系统、获取途径、调控机制以及铁载体的功能与应用,旨在更好地认识铁载体在海洋微生物生态学过程中的作用,加深对海洋铁循环动力学机制的理解。     

Synthesis, structural characterization and redox properties of copper(II) and manganese(II) complexes containing tridentate (N-(2-methylpyridine)-2-aminomethyl benzoate) ligand

Two new complexes, [Cu(mamba)₂] and [Mn(mamba)₂] (mamba⁻, N-(2-methylpyridine)-2-aminomethyl benzoate) were synthesized and characterized by X-ray crystallography. Whereas the [Cu(mamba)₂] complex crystallizes in a monoclinic P2₁/c space group, the [Mn(mamba)₂] complex crystallizes in a triclinic space group. The nature of the metal ion greatly influences the lattices and the molecular structures of the compounds. In the crystal lattice of the copper complex are four cocrystallized methanol solvent, which are all involved in building six strong H-bonds with the complex. However, the lattice for the manganese complex contain only one cocrystallized methanol, along with one NaClO₄, that is also involved in making one H-bond with the [Mn(mamba)₂] unit. Nevertheless, the sodium ion is coordinated to the ClO₄⁻, the methanol and two [Mn(mamba)₂] to form a stable extended chain metal complex. Electrochemical studies indicated that both complexes undergo quasi reversible one electron reduction in acetonitrile.     

Ecophysiological aspects of growth and nitrogen fixation inAzospirillum spp.

The nitrogenase activity ofAzospirillum spp. is efficiently regulated by environmental factors. InA. brasilense andA. lipoferum a rapid switch off of nitrogenase activity occurs after the addition of ammonium chloride. As in photosynthetic bacteria, a covalent modification of nitrogenase reductase (Fe-protein) is involved. InA. amazonense, a non-covalent mechanism causes only a partial inhibition of nitrogenase activity after ammonium chloride is added. In anaerobic conditions, nitrogenase reductase is also switched off by a covalent modification inA. brasilense andA. lipoferum. Short-time exposure ofAzospirillum to increased oxygen levels causes a partially reversible inhibition of nitrogenase activity, but no covalent modification is involved.Azospirillum spp. show variations in their oxygen tolerance. High levels of carotenoids confer a slightly improved oxygen tolerance. Certain amino acids (e. g. glutamate, aspartate, histidine and serine) affect growth and nitrogen fixation differently inAzospirillum spp. Amino acids may influence growth and nitrogen fixation ofAzospirillum in the association with plants.Azospirillum brasilense andA. halopraeferens are the more osmotolerant species. They utilize most amino acids poorly and accumulate glycine betaine, which also occurs in osmotically stressed grasses as a compatible solute to counteract osmotic stress. Nitrogen fixation is stimulated by glycine betaine and choline. Efficient iron acquisition is a prerequisite for competitive and aerotoleran growth and for high nitrogenase activity.Azospirillum halopraeferens andA. amazonense assimilate iron reasonably well, whereas growth of someA. brasilense andA. lipoferum strains is severely inhibited by iron limitation and by competition with foreign microbial iron chelators. However, growth of certain iron-limitedA. brasilense strains is stimulated by the phytosiderophore mugineic acid. Thus, various plant-derived substances may stimulate growth and nitrogen fixation ofAzospirillum.     

Cybernetic modeling of iron-limited growth and siderophore production

The cybernetic modeling framework developed by Ramkrishna and co-workers has been applied to a case of bacterial metabolite production, namely the production of siderophores (iron-chelating agents) associated with iron-limiting fermentation conditions. Experimental growth data showed that, even though final biomass levels were controlled by exhaustion of the carbon source, iron-limiting conditions also affected the biomass yield. A structured model which includes the process of an iron-limiting energy resource production was able to quantitatively account for this apparent dual-substrate limitation over a wide range of batch and continuous operating conditions. The experiments data also showed quite large difference in iron uptake over the wide range of operating condition and iron levels investigated. The inclusion in the model of the processes of low and high (siderophore-mediated) affinity iron transport, and siderophore production led to simulation results that were in good quantitative agreement with the siderophore, medium and cell iron levels, in both batch and steady-state continuous culture operating conditions.     

No effect of intraspecific relatedness on public goods cooperation in a complex community

Many organisms—notably microbes—are embedded within complex communities where cooperative behaviors in the form of excreted public goods can benefit other species. Under such circumstances, intraspecific interactions are likely to be less important in driving the evolution of cooperation. We first illustrate this idea with a simple theoretical model, showing that relatedness—the extent to which individuals with the same cooperative alleles interact with each other—has a reduced impact on the evolution of cooperation when public goods are shared between species. We test this empirically using strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa that vary in their production of metal‐chelating siderophores in copper contaminated compost (an interspecific public good). We show that nonsiderophore producers grow poorly relative to producers under high relatedness, but this cost can be alleviated by the presence of the isogenic producer (low relatedness) and/or the compost microbial community. Hence, relatedness can become unimportant when public goods provide interspecific benefits.     

Specificity and mechanism of rhizoferrin-mediated metal ion uptake

Rhizoferrin-mediated iron uptake was studied in two different classes of organisms: a rhizoferrin producing fungus, Absidia spinosa (Zygomycetes), and a ferric rhizoferrin utilizing bacterium, Morganella morganii (Enterobacteriaceae). The uptake of iron rhizoferrin and some of its metal analogs (chromium, rhodium, gallium), was followed and kinetic parameters measured in A. spinosa. These metal ion complexes were taken up in a concentration- and energy-dependent manner indicative of an active transport system. The uptake of the kinetically inert chromium and rhodium and reductively inert gallium complexes suggests a variation of the so called shuttle mechanism may be operative. The recognition of one geometrical isomer of chromium-rhizoferrin but not another argues for a degree of stereospecificity in the uptake process. A growth promotion plate assay was used to examine metal-rhizoferrin uptake in M. morganii. The results indicate that a number of factors including the nature of the chelating agent (e.g. bipyridyl or EDDHA) used to induce iron deficiency need to be considered before these simple plate assays can be reliably used to indicate the presence or absence of a particular siderophore uptake system.     

Iron uptake and metabolism in the rhizobia/legume symbioses

Iron-containing proteins figure prominently in the nitrogen-fixing symbioses between bacteria of the genera Azorhizovium, Bradyrhizobium and Rhizobium and their respective plant hosts. Although iron is abundant in the soil, the acquisition of iron is problematic due to its low solubility at biological pH under aerobic conditions. The study of iron acquisition as it pertains to these economically important symbioses is directed at answering three questions: 1) how do rhizobial cells acquire iron as free-living microorganisms where they must compete for this nutrient with other soil inhabitants 2) how do the plant hosts acquire enough iron for the symbiosis and 3) how do rhizobia acquire iron as symbionts? Production and/or utilization of ferric-specific ligands (siderophores) has now been documented in the laboratory for a number of rhizobial species, but there is limited information on whether production and/or untilization occurs either in the soil or in planta. Studies with rhizobial mutants which can no longer produce and/or utilize siderophores should address whether siderophores contribute to functional symbioses. In addition, the ability to produce and/or utilize siderophores may affect the outcome of both interstrain and interspecific competition in the rhizosphere and in bulk soil. Some progress has been made at documenting the effects of iron deficiency on nodule development. Studies are also underway to determine whether, in addition to its central structural role, iron may also play a regulatory role in the symbioses. This review is an attempt to give an overview of the field, and hopefully will stimulate further research on the iron nutrition of these symbioses which account for such a significant proportion of the world's biologically fixed nitrogen.     

细菌铁载体拮抗植物病原真菌及促生作用研究进展

铁载体是微生物在缺铁条件下分泌的小分子有机化合物,以获取铁元素维持其生长。细菌分泌的铁载体在拮抗植物病原菌和促进植物生长方面具有重要作用。本文总结了细菌铁载体拮抗植物病原真菌的营养和生态位竞争、诱导植物诱导性系统抗性、扰乱病原菌铁稳态的机制,以及促进植物生长的作用,以解释细菌分泌的铁载体在多功能微生物菌剂研制中的重要作用。     

Crystal Structure of Escherichia coli Enterobactin-specific Isochorismate Synthase (EntC) Bound to its Reaction Product Isochorismate: Implications for the Enzyme Mechanism and Differential Activity of Chorismate-utilizing Enzymes

EntC, one of two isochorismate synthases in Escherichia coli, is specific to the biosynthesis of the siderophore enterobactin. Here, we report the crystal structure of EntC in complex with isochorismate and Mg²⁺at 2.3 Å resolution, the first structure of a chorismate-utilizing enzyme with a non-aromatic reaction product. EntC exhibits a complex α+β fold like the other chorismate-utilizing enzymes, such as salicylate synthase and anthranilate synthase. Comparison of active site structures allowed the identification of several residues, not discussed previously, that might be important for the isochorismate activity of the EntC. Although EntC, MenF and Irp9 all convert chorismate to isochorismate, only Irp9 subsequently exhibits isochorismate pyruvate lyase activity resulting in the formation of salicylate and pyruvate as the reaction products. With a view to understanding the roles of these amino acid residues in the conversion of chorismate to isochorismate and to obtaining clues about the pyruvate lyase activity of Irp9, several mutants of EntC were generated in which the selected residues in EntC were substituted for those of Irp9: these included A303T, L304A, F327Y, I346L and F359Q mutations. Biochemical analysis of these mutants indicated that the side chain of A303 in EntC may be crucial in the orientation of the carbonyl to allow formation of a hydrogen bond with isochorismate. Some mutations, such as L304A and F359Q, give rise to a loss of catalytic activity, whereas others, such as F327Y and I346L, show that subtle changes in the otherwise closely similar active sites influence activity. We did not find a combination of these residues that conferred pyruvate lyase activity.     

Siderophores of Marinobacter aquaeolei: petrobactin and its sulfonated derivatives

Siderophores are low molecular weight, high-affinity iron(III) ligands, produced by bacteria to solubilize and promote iron uptake under low iron conditions. Two prominent structural features characterize the majority of the marine siderophores discovered so far: (1) a predominance of suites of amphiphilic siderophores composed of an iron(III)-binding headgroup that is appended by one or two of a series of fatty acids and (2) a prevalence of siderophores that contain α-hydroxycarboxylic acid moieties (e.g., β-hydroxyaspartic acid or citric acid) which are photoreactive when coordinated to Fe(III). Variation of the fatty acid chain length affects the relative amphiphilicity within a suite of siderophores. Catecholate sulfonation is another structural variation that would affect the hydrophilicity of a siderophore. In addition to a review of the marine amphiphilic siderophores, we report the production of petrobactin disulfonate by Marinobacter aquaeolei VT8. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.