The phylogenetic relationships among Primates (human), Artiodactyla (cow), Cetacea (whale), Carnivora (seal), and Rodentia (mouse and rat) were estimated from the inferred amino acid sequences of the mitochondrial genomes using Marsupialia (opossum), Aves (chicken), and Amphibia (Xenopus) as an outgroup. The overall evidence of the maximum likelihood analysis suggests that Rodentia is an outgroup to the other four eutherian orders and that Cetacea and Artiodactyla form a clade with Carnivora as a sister taxon irrespective of the assumed model for amino acid substitutions. Although there remains an uncertainty concerning the relation among Artiodactyla, Cetacea, and Carnivora, the existence of a clade formed by these three orders and the outgroup status of Rodentia to the other eutherian orders seems to be firmly established. However, analyses of individual genes do not necessarily conform to this conclusion, and some of the genes reject the putatively correct tree with nearly 5% significance. Although this discrepancy can be due to convergent or parallel evolution in the specific genes, it was pointed out that, even without a particular reason, such a discrepancy can occur in 5% of the cases if the branching among the orders in question occurred within a short period. Due to uncertainty about the assumed model underlying the phylogenetic inference, this can occur even more frequently. This demonstrates the importance of analyzing enough sequences to avoid the danger of concluding an erroneous tree. 相似文献
A new selectively neutral mutation occurs in a multilocus genetic background that has achieved a stable equilibrium at which there is a linkage disequilibrium. Perturbation techniques are applied to an extension of the branching process formulation of Fisher in order to address the question of extinction probabilities. We show that under appropriate conditions the probability of extinction of the new mutant is increased by the existence of linkage disequilibrium in the genetic background.Research supported in part by NIH grant GM 28016 相似文献
1. 1. The writers present the general theory of evaluation that is being developed by their group.
2. 2. The evaluation of a human environment is a complex mental process.
3. 3. In an effort to express numerically the quality of an environment, one tends to oversimplify the complex aspects of it and the entailing problems in relation to its inhabitants.
4. 4. In this paper, some examples are taken in the evaluation of thermal environments, wherein much has been said and done in setting up numerical scales to express human comfort, and yet neither clear-cut explanations nor convincing logic seem to exist to terminate the argument over the widely scattered and sometimes seemingly contradicting experimental data.
5. 5. The writers suggest that many of the reasons for this confusion may be traced back to the oversimplified notion of evaluation.
6. 6. It is shown that there are various possibilities when looking at the scales of evaluation.
7. 7.|The nominal scale, least studied of all the four traditional scales, may be given a prominent place in evaluating a thermal environment. The pseudo-interval order scale is another example.
Author Keywords: evaluation; scales; thermal environment; classification; pseudo-interval order 相似文献
1. 1. The ventilatory and pulmonary gas exchange responses during moderate exercise can be appropriately modelled with first-order dynamics.
2. 2. A delay term, reflecting tissue-to-lung transit time, is needed for accurate characterization, however.
3. 3. The O2 uptake time constant (
reflects the enzymatically controlled tissue O2 utilization.
4. 4.
is appreciably longer than
, consequent to the tissue CO2 capacitance.
5. 5. As
typically longer than
, transient errors in alveolar and arterial blood gas tensions are predicted: small for PCO2 but much larger for PO2.
6. 6. At work rates above the lactate threshold, a slow and delayed component of V̇O2 induces an additional V̇ component (“excess” V̇O2), leading to more rapid fatigue.
7. 7. The ventilatory compensation for the metabolic acidemia at these work rates is slow, with compensation being poor for rapid-incremental exercise.
8. 8. A justifiable control model of the coupling of ventilation to metabolism must cohere with these demonstrable physiological characteristics.
Keywords: Ventilation; pulmonary gas exchange; excess V̇O2; compensatory hyperpnea; model order 相似文献
A kinetic model of colony formation was proposed by Hattori, based on a count of the colonies that appear on a plate in successive short intervals of time. In this model, three parameters (,tr and N) are defined, which reflect the ability of a bacterium to yield colonies and allow us to described the dynamics of bacterial populations in soil and ofE. coli at different growth phases. In this paper we report a reparametrization of the kinetic model of colony formation, with the aim of facilitating more accurate calculation of andtr. Moreover, we observed that during the starvation ofE. coli andK. pneumoniae in urine, can be used to assess survival, since this parameter clearly decreases during starvation. Retardation time values (tr) were similar inE. coli andK. pneumoniae throughout the starvation experimental period. 相似文献
The fatty acid composition and some physical properties of intact cells and isolated plasma membranes of two types of mouse myeloid leukemia cell clone grown in culture have been examined. One clone type, MGI+D+, can be induced by the macrophage and granulocyte-inducing protein (MGI) to differentiate into mature macrophages and granulocytes. The other clone type, MGI+D?, could not be induced to differentiate into mature cells. A two-fold increase in the ratio of saturated fatty acid to unsaturated fatty acid was found in the MGI+D? compared to the MGI+D+ clones. The MGI+D? clones produced an unusual polyunsaturated C20:5 fatty acid at 28°C, whereas the MGI+D+ clones did not grow at this temperature. The cells and their isolated plasma membranes were studied by electron spin resonance. The motion of the 5-nitroxide stearate spin label was found to be higher in the intact cells and in the membranes of MGI+D? clones than of the MGI+D+ clones. The cells of MGI+D+ clones showed a similar freedom of motion to normal myeloblasts from the bone marrow. The results indicate that myeloid leukemia cells which differ in their competence to be induced to differentiate into mature cells have different physical properties of their plasma membranes and that this is correlated with their fatty acid acyl chain composition. 相似文献
The time-resolved fluorescence emission anisotropy of 12-(9-anthroyloxy)stearic acid (12-AS) and 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) have been measured in dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine liposomes in the presence and absence of 40 mol% cholesterol at temperatures above and below the phase transition temperature (41°C). By using a synchronously-pumped mode-locked frequency-doubled dye laser and single photon counting detection with an excitation response function of 300 picosecond, rotational correlation times down to less than 1 nanosecond could be resolved. Whereas DPH showed only small changes in the limiting anisotropy on the addition of cholesterol, 12-AS showed significant increases in this parameter with the effect being potentiated at higher temperatures. This difference in behaviour has been attributed to a fluorophore-cholesterol interaction that resulted in a change in the fluorophore geometry. Not only do DPH and 12-AS sense different depolarizing rotations due to the different directions of their emission dipoles but also differ in their lipid interactions which alter their limiting anisotropies. The implication is that the comparison of steady-state anisotropy measurements between chemically identical fluorophores in different lipid environments may be complicated by molecular distortions that change the motions to which the steady-state fluorescence parameters will be sensitive. 相似文献