Elucidation and chemical modulation of sulfolipid-1 biosynthesis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis possesses unique cell-surface lipids that have been implicated in virulence. One of the most abundant is sulfolipid-1 (SL-1), a tetraacyl-sulfotrehalose glycolipid. Although the early steps in SL-1 biosynthesis are known, the machinery underlying the final acylation reactions is not understood. We provide genetic and biochemical evidence for the activities of two proteins, Chp1 and Sap (corresponding to gene loci rv3822 and rv3821), that complete this pathway. The membrane-associated acyltransferase Chp1 accepts a synthetic diacyl sulfolipid and transfers an acyl group regioselectively from one donor substrate molecule to a second acceptor molecule in two successive reactions to yield a tetraacylated product. Chp1 is fully active in vitro, but in M. tuberculosis, its function is potentiated by the previously identified sulfolipid transporter MmpL8. We also show that the integral membrane protein Sap and MmpL8 are both essential for sulfolipid transport. Finally, the lipase inhibitor tetrahydrolipstatin disrupts Chp1 activity in M. tuberculosis, suggesting an avenue for perturbing SL-1 biosynthesis in vivo. These data complete the SL-1 biosynthetic pathway and corroborate a model in which lipid biosynthesis and transmembrane transport are coupled at the membrane-cytosol interface through the activity of multiple proteins, possibly as a macromolecular complex.     

Biosynthesis of UDP-4-keto-6-deoxyglucose and UDP-rhamnose in pathogenic fungi Magnaporthe grisea and Botryotinia fuckeliana

There is increasing evidence that in several fungi, rhamnose-containing glycans are involved in processes that affect host-pathogen interactions, including adhesion, recognition, virulence, and biofilm formation. Nevertheless, little is known about the pathways for the synthesis of these glycans. We show that rhamnose is present in glycans isolated from the rice pathogen Magnaporthe grisea and from the plant pathogen Botryotinia fuckeliana. We also provide evidence that these fungi produce UDP-rhamnose. This is in contrast to bacteria where dTDP-rhamnose is the activated form of this sugar. In bacteria, formation of dTDP-rhamnose requires three enzymes. Here, we demonstrate that in fungi only two genes are required for UDP-Rha synthesis. The first gene encodes a UDP-glucose-4,6-dehydratase that converts UDP-glucose to UDP-4-keto-6-deoxyglucose. The product was shown by time-resolved (1)H NMR spectroscopy to exist in solution predominantly as a hydrated form along with minor amounts of a keto form. The second gene encodes a bifunctional UDP-4-keto-6-deoxyglucose-3,5-epimerase/-4-reductase that converts UDP-4-keto-6-deoxyglucose to UDP-rhamnose. Sugar composition analysis and gene expression studies at different stages of growth indicate that the synthesis of rhamnose-containing glycans is under tissue-specific regulation. Together, our results provide new insight into the formation of rhamnose-containing glycans during the fungal life cycle. The role of these glycans in the interactions between fungal pathogens and their hosts is discussed. Knowledge of the metabolic pathways involved in the formation of rhamnose-containing glycans may facilitate the development of drugs to combat fungal diseases in humans, as to the best of our knowledge mammals do not make these types of glycans.     

Giant DNA virus mimivirus encodes pathway for biosynthesis of unusual sugar 4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-D-glucose (Viosamine)

Mimivirus is one the largest DNA virus identified so far, infecting several Acanthamoeba species. Analysis of its genome revealed the presence of a nine-gene cluster containing genes potentially involved in glycan formation. All of these genes are co-expressed at late stages of infection, suggesting their role in the formation of the long fibers covering the viral surface. Among them, we identified the L136 gene as a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent sugar aminotransferase. This enzyme was shown to catalyze the formation of UDP-4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-D-glucose (UDP-viosamine) from UDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-D-glucose, a key compound involved also in the biosynthesis of L-rhamnose. This finding further supports the hypothesis that Mimivirus encodes a glycosylation system that is completely independent of the amoebal host. Viosamine, together with rhamnose, (N-acetyl)glucosamine, and glucose, was found as a major component of the viral glycans. Most of the sugars were associated with the fibers, confirming a capsular-like nature of the viral surface. Phylogenetic analysis clearly indicated that L136 was not a recent acquisition from bacteria through horizontal gene transfer, but it was acquired very early during evolution. Implications for the origin of the glycosylation machinery in giant DNA virus are also discussed.     

Biosynthesis of threonylcarbamoyl adenosine (t6A), a universal tRNA nucleoside

The anticodon stem-loop (ASL) of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) drives decoding by interacting directly with the mRNA through codon/anticodon pairing. Chemically complex nucleoside modifications found in the ASL at positions 34 or 37 are known to be required for accurate decoding. Although over 100 distinct modifications have been structurally characterized in tRNAs, only a few are universally conserved, among them threonylcarbamoyl adenosine (t(6)A), found at position 37 in the anticodon loop of a subset of tRNA. Structural studies predict an important role for t(6)A in translational fidelity, and in vivo work supports this prediction. Although pioneering work in the 1970s identified the fundamental substrates for t(6)A biosynthesis, the enzymes responsible for its biosynthesis have remained an enigma. We report here the discovery that in bacteria four proteins (YgjD, YrdC, YjeE, and YeaZ) are both necessary and sufficient for t(6)A biosynthesis in vitro. Notably, YrdC and YgjD are members of universally conserved families that were ranked among the top 10 proteins of unknown function in need of functional characterization, while YeaZ and YjeE are specific to bacteria. This latter observation, coupled with the essentiality of all four proteins in bacteria, establishes this pathway as a compelling new target for antimicrobial development.     

X-linked Sideroblastic Anemia Due to Carboxyl-terminal ALAS2 Mutations That Cause Loss of Binding to the β-Subunit of Succinyl-CoA Synthetase (SUCLA2)

Mutations in the erythroid-specific aminolevulinic acid synthase gene (ALAS2) cause X-linked sideroblastic anemia (XLSA) by reducing mitochondrial enzymatic activity. Surprisingly, a patient with the classic XLSA phenotype had a novel exon 11 mutation encoding a recombinant enzyme (p.Met567Val) with normal activity, kinetics, and stability. Similarly, both an expressed adjacent XLSA mutation, p.Ser568Gly, and a mutation (p.Phe557Ter) lacking the 31 carboxyl-terminal residues also had normal or enhanced activity, kinetics, and stability. Because ALAS2 binds to the β subunit of succinyl-CoA synthetase (SUCLA2), the mutant proteins were tested for their ability to bind to this protein. Wild type ALAS2 bound strongly to a SUCLA2 affinity column, but the adjacent XLSA mutant enzymes and the truncated mutant did not bind. In contrast, vitamin B6-responsive XLSA mutations p.Arg452Cys and p.Arg452His, with normal in vitro enzyme activity and stability, did not interfere with binding to SUCLA2 but instead had loss of positive cooperativity for succinyl-CoA binding, an increased K(m) for succinyl-CoA, and reduced vitamin B6 affinity. Consistent with the association of SUCLA2 binding with in vivo ALAS2 activity, the p.Met567GlufsX2 mutant protein that causes X-linked protoporphyria bound strongly to SUCLA2, highlighting the probable role of an ALAS2-succinyl-CoA synthetase complex in the regulation of erythroid heme biosynthesis.     

Triggering the production of the cryptic blue pigment indigoidine from Photorhabdus luminescens

The production of the blue pigment indigoidine has been achieved in the entomopathogenic bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens by a promoter exchange and in Escherichia coli following heterologous expression of the biosynthesis gene indC. Moreover, genes involved in the regulation of this previously “silent” biosynthesis gene cluster have been identified in P. luminescens.     

Characterization of SfmD as a Heme peroxidase that catalyzes the regioselective hydroxylation of 3-methyltyrosine to 3-hydroxy-5-methyltyrosine in saframycin A biosynthesis

Saframycin A (SFM-A) is a potent antitumor antibiotic that belongs to the tetrahydroisoquinoline family. Biosynthetic studies have revealed that its unique pentacyclic core structure is derived from alanine, glycine, and non-proteinogenic amino acid 3-hydroxy-5-methyl-O-methyltyrosine (3-OH-5-Me-OMe-Tyr). SfmD, a hypothetical protein in the biosynthetic pathway of SFM-A, was hypothesized to be responsible for the generation of the 3-hydroxy group of 3-OH-5-Me-OMe-Tyr based on previously heterologous expression results. We now report the in vitro characterization of SfmD as a novel heme-containing peroxidase that catalyzes the hydroxylation of 3-methyltyrosine to 3-hydroxy-5-methyltyrosine using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidant. In addition, we elucidated the biosynthetic pathway of 3-OH-5-Me-OMe-Tyr by kinetic studies of SfmD in combination with biochemical assays of SfmM2, a methyltransferase within the same pathway. Furthermore, SacD, a counterpart of SfmD involved in safracin B biosynthesis, was also characterized as a heme-containing peroxidase, suggesting that SfmD-like heme-containing peroxidases may be commonly involved in the biosynthesis of SFM-A and its analogs. Finally, we found that the conserved motif HXXXC is crucial for heme binding using comparative UV-Vis and Magnetic Circular Dichroism (MCD) spectra studies of SfmD wild-type and mutants. Together, these findings expand the category of heme-containing peroxidases and set the stage for further mechanistic studies. In addition, this study has critical implications for delineating the biosynthetic pathway of other related tetrahydroisoquinoline family members.     

Structure of the cyanobacterial Magnesium Chelatase H subunit determined by single particle reconstruction and small-angle X-ray scattering

The biosynthesis of chlorophyll, an essential cofactor for photosynthesis, requires the ATP-dependent insertion of Mg²⁺ into protoporphyrin IX catalyzed by the multisubunit enzyme magnesium chelatase. This enzyme complex consists of the I subunit, an ATPase that forms a complex with the D subunit, and an H subunit that binds both the protoporphyrin substrate and the magnesium protoporphyrin product. In this study we used electron microscopy and small-angle x-ray scattering to investigate the structure of the magnesium chelatase H subunit, ChlH, from the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus elongatus. Single particle reconstruction of negatively stained apo-ChlH and Chl-porphyrin proteins was used to reconstitute three-dimensional structures to a resolution of ∼30 Å. ChlH is a large, 148-kDa protein of 1326 residues, forming a cage-like assembly comprising the majority of the structure, attached to a globular N-terminal domain of ∼16 kDa by a narrow linker region. This N-terminal domain is adjacent to a 5 nm-diameter opening in the structure that allows access to a cavity. Small-angle x-ray scattering analysis of ChlH, performed on soluble, catalytically active ChlH, verifies the presence of two domains and their relative sizes. Our results provide a basis for the multiple regulatory and catalytic functions of ChlH of oxygenic photosynthetic organisms and for a chaperoning function that sequesters the enzyme-bound magnesium protoporphyrin product prior to its delivery to the next enzyme in the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway, magnesium protoporphyrin methyltransferase.     

Engineering mammalian mucin-type O-glycosylation in plants

Mucin-type O-glycosylation is an important post-translational modification that confers a variety of biological properties and functions to proteins. This post-translational modification has a particularly complex and differentially regulated biosynthesis rendering prediction and control of where O-glycans are attached to proteins, and which structures are formed, difficult. Because plants are devoid of GalNAc-type O-glycosylation, we have assessed requirements for establishing human GalNAc O-glycosylation de novo in plants with the aim of developing cell systems with custom-designed O-glycosylation capacity. Transient expression of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Glc(NAc) C4-epimerase and a human polypeptide GalNAc-transferase in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana resulted in GalNAc O-glycosylation of co-expressed human O-glycoprotein substrates. A chimeric YFP construct containing a 3.5 tandem repeat sequence of MUC1 was glycosylated with up to three and five GalNAc residues when co-expressed with GalNAc-T2 and a combination of GalNAc-T2 and GalNAc-T4, respectively, as determined by mass spectrometry. O-Glycosylation was furthermore demonstrated on a tandem repeat of MUC16 and interferon α2b. In plants, prolines in certain classes of proteins are hydroxylated and further substituted with plant-specific O-glycosylation; unsubstituted hydroxyprolines were identified in our MUC1 construct. In summary, this study demonstrates that mammalian type O-glycosylation can be established in plants and that plants may serve as a host cell for production of recombinant O-glycoproteins with custom-designed O-glycosylation. The observed hydroxyproline modifications, however, call for additional future engineering efforts.     

生物法合成尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖的研究进展

尿苷二磷酸葡萄糖(UDPG)是一种重要的糖类物质合成前体.生物法合成具有低成本、无污染和高立体选择性等传统化学法不具备的优势.利用纯酶催化的生物法以基于Leloir途径改进的一锅法、蔗糖合酶催化的两步法以及糖合成反应可逆催化等产UDPG,实现了UDPG的高产.全细胞催化法利用稳定的胞内酶系产UDPG,胞内生成的UDPG作为底物直接参与产物的催化合成,可行性高且成本更低.综述了酶法和全细胞催化法合成UDPG这两种最主要生物法的研究进展.