Light enough to travel or wise enough to stay? Brain size evolution and migratory behavior in birds

Brain size relative to body size is smaller in migratory than in nonmigratory birds. Two mutually nonexclusive hypotheses had been proposed to explain this association. On the one hand, the “energetic trade‐off hypothesis” claims that migratory species were selected to have smaller brains because of the interplay between neural tissue volume and migratory flight. On the other hand, the “behavioral flexibility hypothesis” argues that resident species are selected to have higher cognitive capacities, and therefore larger brains, to enable survival in harsh winters, or to deal with environmental seasonality. Here, I test the validity and setting of these two hypotheses using 1466 globally distributed bird species. First, I show that the negative association between migration distance and relative brain size is very robust across species and phylogeny. Second, I provide strong support for the energetic trade‐off hypothesis, by showing the validity of the trade‐off among long‐distance migratory species alone. Third, using resident and short‐distance migratory species, I demonstrate that environmental harshness is associated with enlarged relative brain size, therefore arguably better cognition. My study provides the strongest comparative support to date for both the energetic trade‐off and the behavioral flexibility hypotheses, and highlights that both mechanisms contribute to brain size evolution, but on different ends of the migratory spectrum.     

An asymptotic theory for model selection inference in general semiparametric problems

Hjort & Claeskens (2003) developed an asymptotic theoryfor model selection, model averaging and subsequent inferenceusing likelihood methods in parametric models, along with associatedconfidence statements. In this article, we consider a semiparametricversion of this problem, wherein the likelihood depends on parametersand an unknown function, and model selection/averaging is tobe applied to the parametric parts of the model. We show thatall the results of Hjort & Claeskens hold in the semiparametriccontext, if the Fisher information matrix for parametric modelsis replaced by the semiparametric information bound for semiparametricmodels, and if maximum likelihood estimators for parametricmodels are replaced by semiparametric efficient profile estimators.Our methods of proof employ Le Cam's contiguity lemmas, leadingto transparent results. The results also describe the behaviourof semiparametric model estimators when the parametric componentis misspecified, and also have implications for pointwise-consistentmodel selectors.     

Dinosaur nest ecology and predation during the Late Cretaceous: was there a relationship between upper Cretaceous extinction and nesting behavior?

Many hypotheses have been advanced to explain the K/Pg extinctions, yet none closely examines the likely interactions between dinosaurs and contemporary taxa within their communities. The diversity of predators of dinosaur nests and hatchlings increased toward the end of the Cretaceous. In addition to large snakes having been found fossilized in the act of foraging in dinosaur nests, mammals and birds had also evolved new forms potentially capable of exploiting this resource. The constraints on mammal size and niche diversity lessened prior to the K/Pg boundary. Using comparisons of predator/prey size ratios between extant species and known fossils, we demonstrate that mammalian and avian clades had members large enough to prey on dinosaur eggs and hatchlings. We argue that the reproductive strategy of obligatory nest defense was likely practiced by most non-avian dinosaur species. This strategy was highly susceptible to the increasing numbers of mammalian, avian, and reptilian predators, which rendered this strategy obsolete. Continued selection against large oviparous species in the Cenozoic has limited this life-history strategy to habitats that provide concealment – primarily grasslands, a habitat that did not exist until the Miocene. We urge the evaluation of multiple, perhaps synergistic, hypotheses when considering extinction events of this magnitude.     

Male and female contributions to behavioral isolation in darters as a function of genetic distance and color distance

Determining which reproductive isolating barriers arise first between geographically isolated lineages is critical to understanding allopatric speciation. We examined behavioral isolation among four recently diverged allopatric species in the orangethroat darter clade (Etheostoma: Ceasia). We also examined behavioral isolation between each Ceasia species and the sympatric rainbow darter Etheostoma caeruleum. We asked (1) is behavioral isolation present between allopatric Ceasia species, and how does this compare to behavioral isolation with E. caeruleum, (2) does male color distance and/or genetic distance predict behavioral isolation between species, and (3) what are the relative contributions of female choice, male choice, and male competition to behavioral isolation? We found that behavioral isolation, genetic differentiation, and male color pattern differentiation were present between allopatric Ceasia species. Males, but not females, discerned between conspecific and heterospecific mates. Males also directed more aggression toward conspecific rival males. The high levels of behavioral isolation among Ceasia species showed no obvious pattern with genetic distance or male color distance. However, when the E. caeruleum was included in the analysis, an association between male aggression and male color distance was apparent. We discuss the possibility that reinforcement between Ceasia and E. caeruleum is driving behavioral isolation among allopatric Ceasia species.     

Rhinarium temperature dynamics in domestic dogs

Many mammals have specialized nose-tips with glabrous and often wet skin, called rhinaria. The function of the rhinarium is unknown in most species. Rhinaria differ not only in shape and skin structure, but also in skin temperature. They are considerably colder in carnivorans than in herbivorous artio- and perissodactyls. Domestic dogs are carnivorans and their noses often feel cold, such that they can be used as an abundant and easily accessible model species. We performed a study on rhinarium temperature in dogs under various ambient temperatures as well as in different behavioral and physiological contexts, breeds, and age groups. The rhinaria of adult, alert, and comfortable dogs are colder than ambient temperature from 30 °C (approximately 5 °C colder) down to a break point at about 15 °C. At an ambient temperature of 0 °C, rhinarium temperature is approximately 8 °C and the decrease in skin surface temperature with decreasing ambient temperature has not yet leveled off. The dog rhinarium warms up under a number of circumstances. In contrast to the continuously warm rhinaria of herbivores, our results suggest strongly that the cold state is the operating state of the dog rhinarium.     

Locomotor and energetic consequences of behavioral thermoregulation in the sanguivorous leech Hirudo verbana

Medicinal leeches (Hirudo verbana) thermoregulate with respect to their sanguivorous feeding behavior. Immediate postprandial preferences are for warmer than their initial acclimation temperature (T_a, 21 °C, Petersen et al. 2011), while unfed leeches have a lower preferred temperature (T_pref, 12.5 °C). This may reduce energy expenditure and defer starvation if feeding opportunities are limited. Energetic benefits may have an associated cost if low temperatures reduce mobility and the ability to locate further hosts. These costs could be limited if mobility is unimpaired at low temperatures, or if acclimation can restore locomotor performance to the levels at T_a. The transition from T_a to the unfed T_pref significantly reduced speed and propulsive cycle frequency during swimming, and extension and retraction rates during crawling. Aerobic metabolic rate was also reduced from 0.20±0.03 W kg⁻¹ at T_a to 0.10±0.03 W kg⁻¹ at T_pref. The Q₁₀ values of 1.7–2.9 for energetic and swimming parameters indicate a substantial temperature effect, although part of the decline in swimming performance can be attributed to temperature-related changes in water viscosity. 6 weeks at T_a resulted in no detectable acclimation in locomotor performance or aerobic metabolism. The energetic savings associated with a lower T_pref in unfed leeches effectively doubled the estimated time until depletion of energy reserves. Given that some mobility is still retained at T_pref, and that acclimation is in itself costly, the energetic benefits of selecting cooler temperatures between feedings may outweigh the costs associated with reduced locomotor performance.     

非人灵长类是否回避近亲繁殖?

近亲繁殖回避现象是人类学者、生物学者、心理学者和社会学者最关心的研究课题之一。针对灵长类的社会特点和近亲繁殖回避假说,本文引入了三个主要假设:假设1)近亲繁殖可能会导致个体繁殖适合度降低等损失;假设2)近亲繁殖有利有弊,但是弊端可能明显大于利益;假设3)如果弊大于利,那么动物应该进化形成回避近亲繁殖的机制,以减少该行为产生的损失。然后,本文综述分析了6科19个灵长类种群的现有繁殖数据,验证了灵长类的行为回避、迁移和繁殖抑制等机制,旨在强调灵长类回避近亲繁殖的必要性及其生物学背景,并为人类学、生物学和心理学的相关研究提供跨学科素材。     

水洞沟遗址第2地点古人类“行为现代性”及演化意义

解剖学意义上的现代人及其行为的演化与扩散是古人类学和旧石器考古学关注的重大科学问题。本文对水洞沟第2地点生态、技术、经济社会组织和象征行为方面的行为特征进行分析,于不同的文化层揭示出了不同的创新行为,它们分别预示了不同的演化意义。距今4~2万年间中国北方连续发展的石片石器技术系统从人类行为角度支持中国古人类连续演化的假说,在此理论背景下,探求中国古人类的行为创新需要关注人类行为的演化历程,进而总结创新表现,而非将总结自欧非等地区的现代行为清单与中国的考古学材料简单比对,进而讨论行为的现代与否。现代人出现后中国古人类行为的特殊性和多样性,促使研究者更多地关注行为变异性及不同适应策略产生的原因,而非将一系列的特征总称为现代行为;同时提醒学者们不应以总结自旧大陆西部的现代行为清单衡量和定性中国乃至东亚旧石器时代晚期人群的生物学属性和社会行为能力。     

Predation by gulls on crabs in rocky intertidal and shallow subtidal zones of the Gulf of Maine

Most organisms in intertidal areas are marine in origin; many have distributions that extend into the subtidal zone. Terrestrial predators such as mammals and birds may exploit these animals during low tide and can have considerable effects on intertidal food webs. Several studies have shown that avian predators are capable of reducing densities of sessile and slow-moving intertidal invertebrates but very few studies have considered avian predation on mobile invertebrate predators such as crabs. In this study, we investigated predation by Great Black-backed Gulls (Larus marinus Linnaeus) on three species of crabs (Cancer borealis Stimpson, Cancer irroratus Say, and Carcinus maenas Linnaeus). The study was at Appledore Island, ME (a gull breeding island) and 8 other sites throughout the Gulf of Maine, including breeding islands and mainland sites. On Appledore Island, intertidal and subtidal zones provided over one-third of prey remains found at gull nests, and crabs were a substantial proportion (∼ 30% to 40%) of the total remains. Similarly, collections of prey remains from intertidal areas indicated that crabs were by far the most common marine prey. C. borealis was eaten far more often and C. irroratus and C. maenas less often than expected at each site. Comparing numbers of carapaces to densities of crabs in low intertidal and shallow subtidal zones at each site, we estimated that gulls remove between 15% and 64% of C. borealis during diurnal low tides. The proportion of C. borealis eaten by gulls was independent of proximity to a gull colony. Approximately 97% of the outer coast of Maine is within 20 km of a breeding island. Thus, a lot of gull predation on crabs may occur throughout the Gulf of Maine during summer months. Crabs are important predators of other invertebrates; if predation by gulls reduces the number of crabs in intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, gulls may have important indirect effects on intertidal food webs.     

Mandible strike: the lethal weapon of Odontomachus opaciventris against small prey

In order to study both the hunting efficiency and the flexibility of their predatory behavior, solitary hunters of the trap-jaw ant Odontomachus opaciventris were offered small prey (termites, fruit flies and tenebrionid larvae), presenting different morphological or defensive characteristics. The monomorphic hunters showed a moderately flexible predatory behavior characterized by short capture sequences and a noteworthy efficiency of their mandible strike (76.7-100% of prey retrievals), even when presented with Nasutitermes soldiers. Contrary to most poneromorph ants, antennal palpation of the prey before the attack was always missing, no particular targeted region of the prey's body was preferred, and no 'prudent' posture was ever exhibited. Moreover, stinging was regularly performed on bulky, fast moving fruit flies, very scarcely with sclerotized tenebrionid larvae, but never occurred with Nasutitermes workers or soldiers despite their noxious chemical defense. These results suggest that, whatever the risk linked to potentially dangerous prey, O. opaciventris predatory strategy optimizes venom use giving top priority to the swiftness and strength of the lethal trap-jaw system used by hunters as first strike weapon to subdue rapidly a variety of small prey, ranging from 0.3 to 2 times their own body size and from 0.1 to 2 times their weight. Such risk-prone predatory behavior is likely to be related to the large size of O. opaciventris colonies where the death of a forager might be of lesser vital outcome than in small colony-size species.