Modelling temporal variability in the carbon balance of a spruce/moss boreal forest

A model of the daily carbon balance of a black spruce/feathermoss boreal forest ecosystem was developed and results compared to preliminary data from the 1994 BOREAS field campaign in northem Manitoba, Canada. The model, driven by daily weather conditions, simulated daily soil climate status (temperature and moisture profiles), spruce photosynthesis and respiration, moss photosynthesis and respiration, and litter decomposition. Model agreement with preliminary field data was good for net ecosystem exchange (NEE), capturing both the asymmetrical seasonality and short-term variability. During the growing season simulated daily NEE ranged from -4 g C m^-2 d^-1 (carbon uptake by ecosystem) to + 2 g C m^-2 d^-1 (carbon flux to atmosphere), with fluctuations from day to day. In the early winter simulated NEE values were + 0.5 g C m^-2 d^-1, dropping to + 0.2 g C m^-2 d^-1 in mid-winter. Simulated soil respiration during the growing season (+ 1 to + 5 g C m^-2 d^-1) was dominated by metabolic respiration of the live moss, with litter decomposition usually contributing less than 30% and live spruce root respiration less than 10% of the total. Both spruce and moss net primary productivity (NPP) rates were higher in early summer than late summer. Simulated annual NEE for 1994 was -51 g C m^-2 y^-1, with 83% going into tree growth and 17% into the soil carbon accumulation. Moss NPP (58 g C m^-2 y^-1) was considered to be litter (i.e. soil carbon input; no net increase in live moss biomass). Ecosystem respiration during the snow-covered season (84 g C m^-2) was 58% of the growing season net carbon uptake. A simulation of the same site for 1968–1989 showed = 10–20% year-to-year variability in heterotrophic respiration (mean of + 113 g C m^-2 y^-1). Moss NPP ranged from 19 to 114 g C m^-2 y^-1; spruce NPP from 81 to 150 g C m^-2 y^-1; spruce growth (NPP minus litterfall) from 34 to 103 g C m^-2 y^-1; NEE ranged from +37 to -142 g C m^-2 y^-1. Values for these carbon balance terms in 1994 were slightly smaller than the 1969–89 means. Higher ecosystem productivity years (more negative NEE) generally had early springs and relatively wet summers; lower productivity years had late springs and relatively dry summers.     

System-level adjustments to elevated CO2 in model spruce ecosystems

Atmospheric carbon dioxide enrichment and increasing nitrogen deposition are often predicted to increase forest productivity based on currently available data for isolated forest tree seedlings or their leaves. However, it is highly uncertain whether such seedling responses will scale to the stand level. Therefore, we studied the effects of increasing CO₂ (280, 420 and 560 μL L^-1) and increasing rates of wet N deposition (0, 30 and 90 kg ha^-1 y^-1) on whole stands of 4-year-old spruce trees (Picea abies). One tree from each of six clones, together with two herbaceous understory species, were established in each of nine 0.7 m² model ecosystems in nutrient poor forest soil and grown in a simulated montane climate for two years. Shoot level light-saturated net photosynthesis measured at growth CO₂ concentrations increased with increasing CO₂, as well as with increasing N deposition. However, predawn shoot respiration was unaffected by treatments. When measured at a common CO₂ concentration of 420 μL L^-1 37% down-regulation of photosynthesis was observed in plants grown at 560 μL CO₂ L^-1. Length growth of shoots and stem diameter were not affected by CO₂ or N deposition. Bud burst was delayed, leaf area index (LAI) was lower, needle litter fall increased and soil CO₂ efflux increased with increasing CO₂. N deposition had no effect on these traits. At the ecosystem level the rate of net CO₂ exchange was not significantly different between CO₂ and N treatments. Most of the responses to CO₂ studied here were nonlinear with the most significant differences between 280 and 420 μL CO₂ L^-1 and relatively small changes between 420 and 560 μL CO₂ L^-1. Our results suggest that the lack of above-ground growth responses to elevated CO₂ is due to the combined effects of physiological down-regulation of photosynthesis at the leaf level, allometric adjustment at the canopy level (reduced LAI), and increasing strength of below-ground carbon sinks. The non-linearity of treatment effects further suggests that major responses of coniferous forests to atmospheric CO₂ enrichment might already be under way and that future responses may be comparatively smaller.     

Spatial patterns in a two-tiered semi-arid shrubland in southeastern Spain

Abstract. Single species and bivariate distribution patterns in a semi-arid shrubland in southeastern Spain, dominated by the tall leguminous shrub Retama sphaerocarpa, were investigated by second-order spatial analysis based on Ripley's K-function. Shrubs were significantly clumped because of a strong association of dwarf shrubs, mostly Artemisia barrelieri, under the canopy of Retama. Retama shrubs were randomly distributed, but when different size-classes were analysed separately, the pattern changed from significantly clumped to random and then to regular with increasing canopy diameter, suggesting increasing intraspecific competition with shrub size. Artemisia was significantly clumped at all scales because of aggregation under the canopy of large Retama shrubs. The association between the species became stronger with increasing canopy diameter of Retama shrubs, suggesting that facilitation prevailed over interspecific competition because of niche separation in different tiers, both above and below ground. Retama shrub size thus determined both the type of pattern for its own size class and tier, and the scale and intensity of the association with its understorey shrubs.     

Vegetation heterogeneity and diversity in flat and mountain landscapes of Patagonia (Argentina)

Abstract. We studied floristic and diversity patterns and their environmental controls in two landscapes of contrasting topography in the Patagonian steppe. The analyses were focused on the effects of water availability gradients and landscape configuration on plant species distribution and coexistence. Floristic variation was investigated using Correspondence Analysis. The relationship between floristic and environmental variation was analyzed using Canonical Correspondence Analysis and correlation tests. We explored diversity patterns by relating spatial distance to floristic dissimilarities. The floristic gradient was determined by shrub and grass species and was related to precipitation in the flat area, and to precipitation, elevation and potential radiation in the mountain area. Site species richness increased with water availability in both areas. Mean site species richness and species turnover in space was higher in the mountain than in the flat area. Landscape species richness and floristic gradients were more concentrated in the mountain than in the flat area. In contrast to shrubs and grasses, forb species distributions were uncoordinated and probably independent of any environmental gradient. Our results suggest (1) that landscape configuration affects species composition and diversity through its direct effect on abiotic environmental heterogeneity, and (2) that the environmental controls of the community composition vary depending on the plant functional type considered.     

Non-equilibrium thermodynamics of Lotka-Volterra ecosystems: Stability and evolution

A non-equilibrium thermodynamic theory of generalized Lotka-Volterra ecosystem has been presented. The main results consist of the derivation of a generalized expression of entropy-production for the evolutionary ecosystem and the study of its role in the analysis of ecological stability, succession and also in the formulation of some extremum principles characterising the evolution of the ecosystem.     

Conservation and management issues of Prespa National Park

The present article describes the human activities inthe area and their changes and trends, given that thecontemporary nature conservation key issues areclosely related to past and present socio-economic andcultural conditions, both within Prespa itself andoutside of it. The liberation of Prespa, a remote andrather socially isolated borderline area, from Ottoman occupation took place in 1912–13. Recentevents in its environmental history have been forestclearings and human depopulation in the Civil War(1944–49), irrigation system construction in the1960s, its discovery by ornithologists in the late1960s, the high emigration rates of 1960–1980, itsdesignation as a National Park in 1974, thedestructive development works of 1984–86 afterGreeces entry to the EEC and the conversion to intensivebean cultivation in the mid 1980s.The human population of ca 7000 at the start of thiscentury suffered an almost 80% decrease after theCivil War. A resettlement in the mid 1950s increasedthe population by 40% but in the 1970s emigrationreduced it to its previous size of around 1500, stillits present size. The extensive and diverse farmingsystems of previous centuries changed gradually afterthe construction of an irrigation network in the1960s, which twenty years later and along withinternational changes in production and economypatterns, made possible the present day domination ofa bean monoculture within irrigated croplands. Thiswas accompanied by increased energy inputs,mechanisation and the use of chemicals.Intensification of agriculture brought increasedincomes which attracted also livestock keepers,resulting in a 56% decrease in numbers of livestockin 1964–1993. Cattle are presently kept for meatproduction only. They graze on the mountains, and nolonger in the meadows around the lakeshore. A localshorthorn breed accounting for 93% of all cattle in1963 declined to less than 18% in 1993. Fishing aimedmainly at carp and Prespa bleak, continues today as inthe past to be a source of supplementary income.Eighty-six per cent of the – mainly oak and beech –forests are State owned and the rest belong to localmunicipalities. The forest area has not changedessentially in the last 40 years, but forest roadshave expanded. Forests provide mainly fuelwood forlocal needs and small quantities of industrial timber.No specific management is conducted to safeguard theconservation values of the forest, the majority ofwhich consists of even aged coppiced stands withlimited value for wildlife. Manufacturing never playedan important role for the economy of the area. Tourismhas increased in the last 20 years, concentratedmainly in summer and spring. Accommodation in thevillages is not yet satisfactory though it hasimproved enormously in recent years. The NationalParks infrastructure for visitors remains poor.Tourist pressure generally is not yet that high toimpact drastically the social and environmentalfabric. In places, hunting, angling and poaching cannegatively affect the target species. The constructionof the irrigation network in the eastern part of LakeMikri Prespa was the most important change to thelandscape and the habitats of Prespa the last 30years. It resulted in the embankment of free-flowingstreams, drainage of wet meadows and dramaticreduction of trees and hedges. In the last 15 years,the reedbeds, no longer burnt or mowed and assisted byincreased nutrient loadings from agricultural runoff,have expanded landward to occupy formerly open,periodically flooded, areas. The above changes inhabitats and land use have brought an impoverishmentof biodiversity which can be seen in the exterminationor the decrease in the numbers of certain plant andbird species.The problems preventing a better management of theNational Park and the perpetuation of its values areinappropriate legislation, the poor degree ofcoordination of the public services, the lack of botha specific National Park Service in Greece and amanagement authority for the Park and the hostileattitude of local people due to their limitedinformation and involvement. The scenic beauty, thewetlands and a number of rare habitats, the diversityof habitats, flora and fauna, the endemic life forms,the rare mammals and the colonial waterbirds, thelocal architecture and the cultural expressions suchas the Byzantine monuments, are the values of Prespathat must be preserved as a whole. The initialconservation efforts aimed at preserving biodiversitybut later it became apparent that not only are humansan inseparable part of the whole, but additionally,several of their extensive activities have contributedsubstantially to the rich biodiversity of the area.Through the prerequisites of keeping a balance betweenprimary and tertiary sector activities and ofrevitalizing the social fabric, the following are thekey management and conservation issues of today: anunequivocal agreement on the values to be preservedand their limits; the formation of a managementauthority; a new realistic protection and land usezoning; the diversification and extensification of allfarming activities; the restoration of the wet meadowhabitats; the ensuring of a high water level and agood water quality for both lakes through tri-lateralcooperation between Greece, Albania and FYROM; and theestablishment of a permanent environmental monitoringscheme.     

落叶松人工林生态系统净初级生产力形成过程中的能量特征

 本文在生物生产力研究的基础之上,通过热值测定,对东北东部帽儿山地区21年生人工落叶松(Larix gmelinii)生态系统净初级生产力形成过程中的能量特征做了系统研究。结果表明：(1)植物热值随植物种类、器官、分布层次、年龄及季节而发生变化。(2)生态系统中活植物体的能量现存量为269.719×1010J／ha,而枯死体中的能量现存量为36.817×1010J／ha,其中凋落物层和立枯体中能量贮量各占84.04%和15.96%。 (3)生态系统能量净固定量为264.346×109J／ha·yr,其中29.49%的能量存留在植物体中,用于植物净生长。生态系统年能量归还量为88.809×109J／ha,其中32.39%的能量在当年被分解释放,余下能量积累于凋落物层之中;生态系统的能量转化效率为2.299%,与其它森林植物群落相比,落叶松人工林系统是高效率的能量代谢系统。     

茶园冬季乔木落叶的分解和矿质元素释放

在我国南方存在着一种传统植茶方式——茶林复合生态系统,近年来人们已逐步认识到它在维持土壤肥力,抗御自然灾害和保证茶叶内质特性等方面的作用,然而对冬季乔木落叶分解和矿质元素释放的作用尚无报道。本文是对安徽省黄山市休宁县茶树-乌桕复合园和茶树-板栗复合园的冬季乔木落叶分解的研究,为全面认识茶林复合生态系统的性质提供依据。     

The management of Insular Caribbean mangroves in relation to site location and community type

Mangrove ecosystems occupy different locations on Caribbean island coasts, ranging from open bays (fringe mangals) to totally enclosed salt ponds and salinas. On geomorphologically active coastlines, such as south Jamaica, systems are at varying degrees of maturity and productivity. Furthermore, because of system variability, the interactions between mangroves and associated marine systems, such as coral reefs and seagrass beds, are developed to different degrees.Community structure and productivity of a range of mangals on different islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles are discussed. Forcing functions and levels of interaction with the marine environment are identified.The rational choice of management options must be based on the range of goods and services provided by the different systems; and a good understanding of their ecology is essential when choosing sites for protection, waste disposal, landfill, marina development and fisheries enhancement. Examples are given from current studies in Jamaica, St. Lucia, the British Virgin Islands and Trinidad, of a flexible management response to mangrove ecosystem diversity.     

An ecological approach to biosystem thermodynamics

The general attributes of ecosystems are examined and a naturally occurring reference ecosystem is established, comparable with the isolated system of classical thermodynamics. Such an autonomous system with a stable, periodic input of energy is shown to assume certain structural characteristics that have an identifiable thermodynamic basis. Individual species tend to assume a state of least dissipation; this is most clearly evident in the dominant species (the species with the best integration of energy acquisition and conservation). It is concluded that ecosystem structure results from the antagonistic interaction of two nearly equal forces. These forces have their origin in the Principle of Most Action (least dissipation or least entropy production) and the universal Principle of Least Action. Most action is contingent on the equipartitioning of the energy available, through uniform interaction of similar individuals. The trend to Least action is contingent on increased dissipation attained through increasing diversity and increasing complexity. These principles exhibit a basic asymmetry. Given the operation of these opposing principles over evolutionary time, it is argued that ecosystems originated in the vicinity of thermodynamic equilibrium through the resonant amplification of reversible fluctuations. On account of the basic asymmetry the system was able to evolve away from thermodynamic equilibrium provided that it remained within the vicinity of ergodynamic equilibrium (equilibrium maintained by internal work, where the opposing forces are equal and opposite).At the highest level of generalization there appear to be three principles operating: i) maximum association of free-energy and materials; ii) energy conservation (deceleration of the energy flow) through symmetric interaction and increased homogeneity; and iii) the principle of least action which induces acceleration of the energy flow through asymmetrical interaction. The opposition and asymmetry of the two forces give rise to natural selection and evolution.