Visual search and the importance of time in complex decision making by bees

Psychophysicists studying decision making in animals have overwhelmingly focused on choice accuracy, not speed. Results from human visual search, however, show that there might be a tight link between the two. Here we review both visual-sensory and cognitive mechanisms that affect decision speed in flower visiting bees. We show that decision times are affected by contrast of targets and background, by similarity between targets and distractors, numbers of distractors present in a scene, illuminating light intensity, presence or absence of punishment, and complexity of tasks. We explore between-individual and within-individual speed-accuracy tradeoffs, and show that bees resort to highly dynamic strategies when solving visual search tasks. Where possible, we attempt to link the observed search behaviour to the temporal and spatial properties of neuronal circuits underlying visual object detection. We demonstrate that natural foraging speed may not only be limited by factors such as food item density, flight energetics and scramble competition, as often implied. Our results show that understanding the behavioural ecology of foraging can substantially gain from knowledge about mechanisms of visual information processing.     

小蜜蜂属Micrapis的研究(蜜蜂科Apidae)

小蜜蜂属Micrapis Ashmead隶属于蜜蜂族Apini本届包括两种,即Micrapis florea(Fabr.),Micrapis andreniformis(Sm.)过去仅有工蜂形态的记述,缺少雌、雄性标本及对比资料。现根据中国科学院动物所标本及云南蜜蜂所采自云南各地此两种小蜜蜂雌、雄性标本形态作一比较,以利鉴别。此外,本文尚将生物学习性及分布加以整理,以便利用。 一、主要鉴别特征 雌性:腹部第1—2节背板、第3节背板基半部及第3—5节背板端缘均红褐色,余黑色;颚眼距长宽相等;POL:OOL=9:5;触角第3节稍长于第4节;各跗节褐色;体长13—15毫米…………小蜜蜂Micrapis florea(Fabr.)     

Pollination in a cryptically dioecious plant Decaspermum parviflorum (Lam.) A. J. Scott (Myrtaceae) by pollen-collecting bees in Sulawesi, Indonesia

Decaspermum parviflorum is a common shrub or treelet in clearings in eastern Sulawesi, Indonesia. It is widely distributed in SE Asia. It produces numerous white flowers and small blue-black fruits. Individual shrubs were of two types in 1:1 ratio, one bearing staminate flowers, the other bearing flowers with both stamens and carpels. The 'hermaphrodite' flowers were shown to have sterile pollen so the species is functionally dioecious. The flowers and floral sprays of the two sexes differed in several measurements: the male flowers had more anthers and were larger and more numerous, making the corporate visual image of male sprays more than twice as large as that for sprays of female flowers. Flowers, individuals of which last only one day, opened only every second day, when all bushes flower synchronously. When the anthers burst in the morning, pollen and sterile pollen was collected vigorously by a variety of bees, mostly Apis dorsata and Nomia spp. Most of the pollen was collected within 1 h of anthesis. Anthesis in males takes place about 20 min earlier than in females; insect visitation follows this pattern. The minute quantity of nectar was collected by only few insects and mostly after the pollen had gone, if at all. Fruits were eaten by birds. The species displays many features typical of dioecious tropical plants with the unusual feature of pollen being the main food reward for pollinators. It was pollinated effectively in Sulawesi.     

Kin recognition of worker brood by worker honey bees,Apis mellifera L.

Experimental colonies of honey bees consisting of two patrilines were observed as they reared worker brood. Seven behavior patterns that relate to brood care were recorded. Worker bees biased the care they provided to eggs and larvae destined to become workers on the basis of brood patrilines. Both patrilineal and antipatrilineal preferences in various behavioral patterns were observed. There was variation among colonies that may have been the result of the frequencies of brood of each patriline and the total amount of brood available to be reared. In addition, there were some differences between workers of the two patrilines in the way that they cared for the two patrilines of brood.     

Revision of the subgenus Udamochiras of Melaloncha bee-killing flies (Diptera: Phoridae: Metopininae)

The genus Melaloncha Brues is defined and groundplan character states established based on outgroup comparison with Phalacrotophora Enderlein and Melittophora Brues. Major groupings within Melaloncha are recognized, and two subgenera are established: Udamochiras Enderlein (type species M. colossia (Enderlein)) and Melaloncha s.s. (type species M. pulchella Brues). Subgenus Udamochiras is revised and 42 species are recognized, including the following 33 new to science: M. anaticula , M. angustifrons , M. apicula , M. aprica , M. basella , M. biseta , M. brevicarina , M. carinata , M. compressicauda , M. exigua , M. falcata , M. flavilata , M. hamata , M. hansoni , M. horologia , M. individa , M. lobata , M. maculifrons , M. parkeri , M. paxilla , M. premordica , M. rhampha , M. rhypopoda , M. rostrata , M. sinuosa , M. spatula , M. spicula , M. triangularis , M. trua , M. valeria , M. vargasi , M. villosa , M. woodi . Melaloncha simillima Borgmeier is removed from synonymy with M. piliapex Borgmeier and reinstated as a separate species; lectotypes are designated for both.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 140 , 1−42     

Electroantennogram and behavioral responses of workers of the stingless bee Oxytrigona mediorufa to mandibular gland volatiles

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis showed that the mandibular gland secretion of workers of the stingless bee Oxytrigona mediorufa (Cockerell) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) is composed of 3-hepten-2,5-dione, 3-nonene-2,5-dione, 2-heptanone, hydrocarbons, tetradecyl, and hexadecyl acetates and minor compounds related to these. Behavioral and electroantennographic tests were carried out on conspecific workers to observe the effect of worker mandibular gland secretion, individual compounds (2-heptanone, 2-nonanone, and tetradecyl acetate), and a blend of these three. Bioassays showed that biting responses of O. mediorufa to the odor of the mandibular gland secretion were similar to that of 2-heptanone and to the three-component blend. Oxytrigona mediorufa workers exhibited antennal olfactory responses to the gland extract, 2-heptanone, and the synthetic mixture. The function of the mandibular gland secretion and 2-heptanone is discussed in terms of an alarm pheromone and defensive substances.     

Ultrastructural characterization of spermatozoa in euglossine bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Apinae)

Summary. Euglossine spermatozoa are the longest described to date for the Hymenoptera. This cell includes a head and a flagellar region. In transverse sections, the acrosome is circular at the tip but has an oval contour along most of its length. The perforatorium penetrates into a deep cavity in the nuclear tip. The flagellum consists in an axoneme, a pair of mitochondrial derivatives, a centriolar adjunct and a pair of accessory bodies. The axoneme has a 9+9+2 microtubule pattern which becomes gradually disorganized in the final portion, with the central microtubules and the nine doublets terminating simultaneously, followed by the accessory microtubules. The mitochondrial derivatives are asymmetric both in length and diameter. Sectioned transversally, the derivatives are ellipsoidal or have a pear shape. The larger one has a more obvious paracrystalline region. The centriolar adjunct begins at the nuclear base and extends parallel to the axoneme until it encounters the smaller mitochondrial derivative, on which it fits, making a concave groove. In addition to these consistent euglossine features, species-specific differences that might be useful in phylogenetic work on the group are also noted.Received 18 October 2003; revised 4 September 2004; accepted 4 October 2004.     

Morphological and functional aspects of volatile-producing glands in bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

Abstract In this paper we focus on the occurrence and morphological aspects of exocrine glands in several bee species. Morphology of head labial, mandibular, Dufour, and abdominal tegumentar glands was investigated under light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Most of such glands present cells with cytoplasm homogeneous and acidophilic, or contain small apparently empty vacuoles. The cytoplasm cells' ultrastructure showed a well developed smooth endoplasmic reticulum, many polymorphic mitochondria, rare Golgi, lipid droplets, myelin figures, and many basal and apical plasma membrane infoldings. All these results are discussed in the text.     

Social wasps and bees captured in carrion traps in a rainforest in Brazil

Information is presented on social wasps and bees caught in carrion traps in ‘terra firme’ rainforest in Caxiuanã, PA, Brazil. Six species of epiponine wasps were captured. Angiopolybia pallens was the most frequent species, being caught in approximately 43.5% of the trials, followed by Angiopolybia paraensis (15.8%), Agelaia fulvofasciata (5.6%) and Agelaia angulata (3.3%). Agelaia pallipes and Agelaia cajennensis both had only a single individual captured. Twelve species of social bees were captured. The genera Trigona, Partamona and Melipona had similar numbers of species, but frequencies varied considerably. One individual of Apis mellifera was captured.