The impact of fluctuating thermal regimes on the survival of a cold-exposed parasitic wasp, Aphidius colemani

Abstract.  The impact of fluctuating thermal regimes on the cold tolerance of the parasitoid Aphidius colemani at the mummy stage is examined. The hypothesis is tested that, if a cold period is interrupted by a return to a higher temperature for a short time, a physiological recovery is possible and may lead to higher survival. Mummies are exposed to a constant temperature of 4 °C and, when periodic sudden transfers to 20 °C for 2 h are applied, survival of immature parasitoids is markedly improved, proportionally to the warming frequency. The time lag before emergence diminishes with the duration of cold exposure and with warming frequency. The sex ratio of emergent adults after cold exposure indicates that males may be more susceptible than females to cold-injury. It is suggested that the transfer to 20 °C allows a re-activation of the normal metabolism, leading to repair and recovery of any injuries caused by prolonged chilling. The study underlines the importance of cyclic temperature changes on insect survival.     

Population level effects of cadmium and the insecticide imidacloprid to the parasitoid, Aphidius ervi after exposure through its host, the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris)

The objective of this study was to assess the influence of toxic substances with different modes of action on a two-species system: an aphid-specific parasitoid, Aphidius ervi Haliday, feeding on the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris). The instantaneous rate of population increase (r_i) was used as a measure of population level toxic effect in this study. The toxicants evaluated were imidacloprid, a nonpersistent neurotoxic insecticide, and cadmium, a chronic pollutant with a tendency to accumulate. We evaluated the effects of cadmium and imidacloprid on A. pisum and A. ervi because both toxicants can occur together in polluted areas where crops are grown. Cadmium (200 or 400 mg kg⁻¹ dry weight soil) and imidacloprid (4 or 40 g a.i. ha⁻¹) were applied to soil contained in plastic pots in which broad bean plants, Vicia faba L., were grown. Results of this study indicated that cadmium at the concentrations tested, reduced population growth rate of the pea aphid. Imidacloprid also reduced aphid growth rate, but only at the highest concentration tested (40 g a.i. ha⁻¹). Combinations of cadmium and imidacloprid had the greatest impact on aphid growth rate. Imidacloprid alone had no effect on population growth rate of the parasitoid. However, cadmium alone or in combination with imidacloprid had a negative impact on A. ervi by reducing population growth rate 77%. These results indicate that negative impacts on parasitoids may occur in areas where cadmium contamination is present and imidacloprid is used to control aphids.     

The influence of temperature on size as an indicator of host quality for the development of a solitary koinobiont parasitoid

The influence of aphid size on the host quality assessment and progeny performance of aphidiine parasitoids was examined using the mealy plum aphid parasitoid, Aphidius transcaspicus Telenga (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and the black bean aphid, Aphis fabae Scopoli (Homoptera: Aphididae), as a readily acceptable alternate host. Aphid size in relation to stage of development was manipulated by rearing synchronous aphid cohorts at either 15 or 30 °C. At 15 °C, 2nd instar aphids were approximately the same size as 4th instar aphids reared at 30 °C. Cohorts of 30 aphids from each instar, reared at each temperature, were exposed to parasitism by a single parasitoid female for a period of 5 h. Overall susceptibility to parasitism did not vary between aphid cohorts, but the parasitoid response to aphid size differed significantly between rearing temperatures for both progeny sex ratio (parent female assessment of host quality) and larval growth and development (host suitability for parasitoid development). For aphids reared at 15 °C, the proportion of female progeny and emerging adult size for the parasitoid increased linearly with aphid size at the time of attack, while development time remained constant. In contrast, for aphids reared at 30 °C, the proportion of female progeny, emerging adult size, and the development time of the parasitoid all declined with aphid size at the time of attack. The contrasting responses of the parasitoid to host size for aphids reared at the two temperatures suggest that host quality is only indirectly related to aphid size among aphidiine parasitoids. The possible effects of higher temperatures on nutritional stress, obligate endosymbionts, and future growth potential of the aphids are discussed as explanations for the variation in host quality for parasitoid development.     

Complex interactions between a plant pathogen and insect parasitoid via the shared vector-host: consequences for host plant infection

Plant viruses modify the development of their aphid vectors by inducing physiological changes in the shared host plant. The performance of hymenopterous parasitoids exploiting these aphids can also be modified by the presence of the plant pathogen. We used laboratory and glasshouse microcosms containing beans (Vicia faba) as the host plant to examine the interactions between a plant virus (pea enation mosaic virus; PEMV) and a hymenopterous parasitoid (Aphidius ervi) that share the aphid vector/host Acyrthosiphon pisum. Neither PEMV-infection of V. faba, nor the carriage of PEMV virions by A. pisum, affected the growth or morphology of the aphid, or the oviposition behaviour and development of A. ervi. The presence of developing Aphidius ervi larvae within Acyrthosiphon pisum did not affect the ability of the aphids to transmit PEMV. However, by reducing their longevity, parasitism ultimately decreased the time viruliferous aphids were able to inoculate plants. In terms of virus dispersal, parasitized aphids exhibited more movement around experimental arenas than unparasitized controls, causing a slight increase in the proportion of beans infected with PEMV. Exposure to adult Aphidius ervi caused Acyrthosiphon pisum to rapidly drop off bean plants and disperse to new hosts, resulting in considerably higher plant infection rates (70%) than that seen in control arenas (25%). The results of this investigation demonstrate that when parasitoids are added to a plant-pathogen-vector system, benefits to the host plant due to reduced herbivore infestation must be balanced against the consequences of parasitoid-induced aphid dispersal and a subsequent increase in the level of plant infection.     

Chemically mediated associative learning in the host foraging behavior of the aphid parasitoidAphidius ervi (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

The effect of experience on the responsiveness of the braconid parasitoidAphidius ervi to host(Acyrthosiphon pisum)-associated cues was investigated on bean plants(Vicia faba) using a wind tunnel bioassay. Oviposition experience on the plant-host complex significantly increased the oriented flight and landing responses ofA. ervi females to an undamaged plant and to a plant-host(A. pisum) complex. However, oviposition experience onA. pisum aphids when isolated from the plant did not change their responses to the intact plant and the complex. Searching on an unwashed plant which had been previously damaged byA. pisum also increased their response to an undamaged plant and a host-damaged plant, whereas the experience of searching on an undamaged plant did not significantly change their responses to undamaged plants. However, when parasitoids were allowed to search on an undamaged plant which had been sprayed withA. pisum honeydew, this significantly increased their response to an undamaged plant. Oviposition experience on the plant-host complex and foraging experience on a host-damaged plant or an undamaged plant sprayed with honeydew also significantly reduced the mean time taken by the parasitoids to respond in the wind tunnel. The behavioral changes associated with such experience were acquired within 30 min and persisted for at least 3 days. The results demonstrate the capacity ofA. ervi to learn associatively olfactory cues from plants, host-damaged plants, and plant-host complexes and confirm the role of aphid honeydew as a host recognition kairomone forA. ervi.     

Incidence of parasitism by Aphidius rhopalosiphi in colour forms of the aphid Sitobion avenae

Aphidius rhopalosiphi parasitises green colour forms of Sitobion avenae more frequently than brown forms. The handling time is longer for brown than for green nymphs, even when the two forms are members of the same clone. Parasite development lasts longer in brown forms than in green forms, and mortality is higher.

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Résumé A. rhopalosiphi a parasité les stades jeunes de S. avenae avec plus de succès que les stades âgés, et les types verts plus fréquemment que les bruns. Dans tous les cas, la mortalité était élevée; significativement plus de pucerons du premier et du second stade ont été tués par l'attaque du parasite que ceux des 3è et 4è stades. La fréquence de pucerons bruns formant des momies a augmenté avec le nombre de pipûres, de 0,1 pour une piqûre à 0,4 pour 8 piqûres. Lorsqu'il n'y a qu'une piqûre, le nombre d'oeufs émis est le même pour les deux types. A 20–22 °C, le développement du parasite dure jusqu'à 9 jours dans les pucerons verts et 12 jours dans les bruns. Lorsqu'il y a choix, les parasites préfèrent les verts aux bruns (Même quand ils sont du même clone) et les bruns clair aux bruns sombres. Les verts ont besoin de moins de rencontres que les bruns pour être piqués, mais pour une souche de parasites recueillie depuis peu, la différence était faible, pourtant cette nouvelle souche ne parasitait pas les pucerons bruns avec plus de succès que l'ancienne souche.

     

Primary sex-ratio and differential progeny survivorship in solitary haplo-diploid parasitoids

ABSTRACT.

• 1 A method of partitioning emergence sex-ratio to give estimates of primary sex-ratio and male and female offspring survival from oviposition to emergence in solitary haplo-diploid parasitoids is presented.
• 2 This method is applied to sex-ratio data from a larval parasitoid, Aphidius ervi Haliday, and a pupal parasitoid, Coccygomimus turionella L., parasitizing a range of host types.
• 3 There was no evidence of facultative control of primary sex-ratio in either species. Parasitoid emergence sex-ratios were similar for all host sizes attacked by C. turionella. In contrast, emergence sex-ratios of A.ervi showed a significant male bias in smaller hosts. This shift in emergence sex-ratio was attributable to differential progeny survival.
• 4 Pre-emergence mortality in both species was a function of host size, with few offspring surviving from small hosts. This suggests that host size may be an important component in the dynamics of host-parasitoid interactions.
• 5 The evolution of sex-ratio regulatory mechanisms in solitary haplo-diploid parasitoids is discussed in the context of parasitoid life-history. We suggest that there is a constraint to the evolution of the facultative control of primary sex-ratio in parasitoids attacking larval stages as a result of the uncertainty of future host resource acquisition rates.

     

The use of isoelectric focusing to assess percentage hymenopterous parasitism in aphid populations

The primary parasitoid Aphidius uzbekistanicus Luzhetski and its host, the cereal aphid Sitobion avenae (F.) both showed specific bands for the enzyme malate dehydrogenase (MDH), thereby allowing clear detection of parasitism. The specific profiles of MDH activities remained recognizable through all post-embryonal life-stages, but the intensity of staining depended on the instar and morph subjected to analysis. A calibrated equation, representing the relationship between percentage parasitoid-specific MDH activity and percentage parasitism, was elaborated for third instar S. avenae. This equation was, however, not applicable to field-collected material. Reasons for this failure and the possible use of isolectric focusing (IEF) for other parasitoid: host relationships are discussed.

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Zusammenfassung Die herkömmlichen Methoden zur Bestimmung der Parasitierungsrate bei Blattläusen sind zeit- und arbeitsaufwendig, so daß sich meist nur ein geringer Stichprobenumfang bearbeiten läßt. Wir haben daher untersucht, ob die Parasitierung größerer Blattlauskollektive mittels der isoelektrischen Fokussierung (IEF) schnell und verläßlich zu ermitteln ist, wobei wir die Malatdehydrogenase (MDH) als Enzymsystem wählten.Die Modellpopulationen (der Parasitoid Aphidius uzbekistanicus und die Wirtsblattlaus Sitobion avenae) zeigten in allen Stadien und Morphen spezifische Bandenprofile, die ein Erkennen parasitierter Blattläuse eindeutig ermöglichten. Die Intensität der Färbung hing aber von den untersuchten Larvenstadien ab, d.h. ältere, größere Tiere ergaben quantitativ bedeutendere Enzymaktivitäten als jüngere, kleinere.Bei S. avenae wurde dieser Sachverhalt noch von der jeweiligen Morphenzugehörigkeit überlagert: alatiforme Stadien bewirkten stärkere Färbungsintensitäten als apteriforme. Dieses ist wahrscheinlich auf die Anhäufung von MDH-reichen Mitochondrien in der Flugmuskulatur zurückzuführen.Durch eine densitometerische Auswertung war es uns möglich, den relativen Anteil des parasitoidenspezifischen Peaks einer Probe mit dem jeweiligen (bekannten) Parasitierungsgrad in Beziehung zu setzen. Zwischen dem kleinsten und größten Larvenstadium des Parasitoiden ergab sich dabei eine bestimmte Spanne für einen gegebenen Parasitierungsgrad.Mit diesen Werten haben wir eine auf Feldbedingungen ausgerichtete, simulierte Gleichung errechnet, die wir auf Freilandblattläuse mit bekanntem Parasitierungsgrad anwendeten. Um den Einfluß der Stadienzugehörigkeit auszuschalten, wurden nur Blattläuse im dritten Stadium untersucht.Die Verteilung der Larvenstadien der Parasitoiden erwies sich aber als zu heterogen, so daß die errechneten Werte nur in zwei von neun Proben mit den durch Zuchtansätze ermittelten Werten übereinstimmten. In anderen Wirt-Parasitoid-Systemen mit ausgeprägter Stadienspezifität und demzufolge synchroner Entwicklung könnte die IEF aber durchaus von großem Nutzen sein.

     

Plant structure and the foraging success of Aphidius rhopalosiphi (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae)

Abstract. 1. A study of searching behaviour on wheat and host preference of Aphidius rhopalosiphi (DeStefani-Perez) is described.
2. Parasitoids divided their time equally between the leaves but spent very little time on the ear.
3. After contact with honeydew or an aphid host, parasitoids were arrested in a particular area and increased the time spent searching.
4. Aphids feeding on the ear were parasitized less successfully, since their position between the grains protected them from parasitoid attacks.
5. A.rhopalosiphi exhibited no preference for Metopolophium dirhodum (Walker) or Sitobion avenae (Fabricius), although the handling time for the latter was significantly longer; this resulted in fewer S.avenae being parasitized when it was abundant. Parasitoids did not switch between hosts in these experiments.
6. As a result of its searching behaviour, A.rhopalosiphi will encounter and parasitize M.dirhodum feeding on the leaves more frequently than S.avenae, which feeds on the ear. This will limit the parasitoid's ability to regulate populations of the cereal aphid S. avenae.     

Increased Parasitization of Aphids on Trap Plants Alongside Vials Releasing Synthetic Aphid Sex Pheromone and Effective Range of the Pheromone

Aphid-infested cereal trap plants were used to detect the effects of aphid sex pheromone components on aphid parasitoid activity in arable field margins. The presence of aphid sex pheromones significantly increased parasitization levels by aphid parasitoids on the plants. By placing plants alongside and at varying distances away from a pheromone-releasing vial, the technique was used to measure the distance over which a point source of aphid sex pheromone could increase parasitization levels. Pheromone-releasing vials significantly increased parasitization by the generalist parasitoid Praon volucre on plants adjacent to vials and on plants placed 20 cm away. When the distance between pheromone-releasing vials and aphid-infested plants was increased to 1 m, parasitization by P. volucre was increased only on the plant adjacent to the vial, whereas parasitization by the specialist parasitoid Aphidius rhopalosiphi was also increased on plants placed 1 m away. This indicates a possible difference between the parasitoids in their foraging behaviour in response to semiochemical cues during host selection. When the experiment was repeated with some trap plants placed 3 m away from the pheromone-releasing vial, parasitization was again concentrated on plants directly alongside the vial, but only P. volucre appeared to be active in the field at the time of this experiment, so the effect on A. rhopalosiphi could not be assessed. The results are encouraging for the prospects of using aphid sex pheromones to manipulate parasitoids in order to improve aphid population control.