Application of hydrolysis probe analysis to identify clade types of the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles funestus sensu stricto from Muheza,northeastern Tanzania

A hydrolysis probe analysis (TaqMan assay) was used to study clade types in Anopheles funestus sensu stricto Giles, a major malaria vector in sub‐Saharan Africa, with specimens collected from Muheza in Tanga, northeastern Tanzania. A total of 186 An. funestus specimens were analysed, revealing that 176 (94.6%) were of clade I and 10 (5.4%) of clade II. These findings extend the distribution of clade type II from southern Mozambique and northern Zambia to northeastern Tanzania. The technique used can also be of great value in assessing the role and contribution of these clade types in malaria transmission and insecticide resistance frequencies for An. funestus s.s.     

Fruit selection by Andean forest birds: influence of fruit functional traits and their temporal variation

Fruit selection, i.e., the consumption of fruits disproportionately to their availability, results from the interaction between diet preferences and ecological factors that modify them. We assessed the importance of functional fruit traits to explain fruit selection by birds in Andean subtropical forests, taking into account temporal variation in trait distribution in the assembly of available fruits. During 2 yr, we measured the abundance of ripe fruits and their consumption by birds in a 6‐ha plot during 11 bimonthly samplings, and we used 17 phenological, morphological, and nutritional traits to characterize fruits selected by four bird species. Fruit selection was pervasive year‐round, highly variable over time and across bird species. Fruit species were selected over time periods shorter than their ripening phenology, and the selection of fruits with particular traits was specific to the fruit‐eating species. Maximization in pulp reward per consumed fruit seems to be the main driving force behind fruit selection, indicating that birds select fruits with traits that directly affect net energy gain. Our results can be interpreted in a framework of a hierarchy of foraging decisions, under which the spatiotemporal context of the fruiting environment modifies the relative intake rates of a particular fruit, while the ability to discriminate fruit contents becomes increasingly important on a smaller dimension. We show that fruit‐selection properties are contingent on specific fruit traits and particular spatiotemporal conditions, which modify the structure of mutualistic interactions.     

Quinoa – a Model Crop for Understanding Salt-tolerance Mechanisms in Halophytes

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is an ancient Andean crop that produces edible seeds and leaves. Quinoa's tolerance to salinity and other types of abiotic stresses provides it with high potential in a world where scarcity of water and increased soil salinization are important causes of crop failures. Due to its traditionally broad cultivation area (from Colombia to southern Chile), there is a wide range of quinoa cultivars adapted to specific conditions displaying a broad genetic variability in stress tolerance. In addition, being practically unique as a halophytic seed-producing crop with amazing nutritional properties, it is ideal as a model species for investigating morphological, cellular, physiological, and bio-molecular mechanisms of salinity tolerance. This review summarizes current knowledge of genotype-dependent variability in salinity responses and adaptive salt-tolerance mechanisms in quinoa. These include anatomical features and physiological aspects, such as osmotic adjustment through accumulation of ions, osmoprotectants, and sodium loading, transport, and storage, including the activity and gene expression of plasma and vacuolar membrane transporters. Finally, current knowledge regarding the effect of salinity on the nutritional properties of quinoa is discussed.     

Ontogeny and evolution of the flowers of South African Restionaceae with special emphasis on the gynoecium

 The South African Restionaceae make up a highly diverse group of genera displaying several reductive trends in the configuration of the flower, especially in the gynoecium. In this paper the floral ontogeny of fourteen species representing nine of the 11 genera of the Restio clade is studied with the SEM. Although flowers are basically simple, the variability in both mature and developmental stages is striking. Differences between species are the result of changes in growth rate, coupled with differential pressures of organs. Trends in the elaboration of bracts, perianth, androecium and gynoecium are compared. Together with data that have been presented elsewhere about the other clade of African Restionaceae, viz. the Willdenowia-clade, a scheme with potential developmental pathways is proposed and the most evident routes are selected based on ontogenetic evidence. Nine possible reductions are presented arising through three main routes. Received August 27, 2001 Accepted October 26, 2001     

Areas of endemism and spatial diversification of the Muscidae (Insecta: Diptera) in the Andean and Neotropical regions

Aim We present a biogeographical analysis of the areas of endemism and areas of diversification in the Muscidae. This analysis searched for geographical patterns in the Muscidae to reconstruct elements of the evolutionary biogeographical history of this insect family. Location Andean and Neotropical regions. Method We constructed a geographic database of 728 species from the literature and museum specimens. Areas of endemism were established by parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) based on grids of two different sizes: 5° (550 × 550 km) and 2° (220 × 220 km). Areas of diversification were delimited by track analysis that also included phylogenetic information. This process was independently applied to 11 genera. For each genus, we plotted generalized tracks generated by sister species on a map. When these generalized tracks supported inter‐generic nodes they were manually contoured and inferred to be areas of diversification for the Muscidae. Results Thirteen endemic areas were found using the 5° grid, and eight endemic areas resulted from the 2° grid. Ten areas were in agreement with previous studies, and 11 were new. Amazonian and Atlantic areas of diversification agreed with previous areas for the genus Polietina, and new areas of diversification were found in Panama and in central Chile. Main conclusions Six spatial patterns in the Muscidae were identified: (1) areas of endemism in both Pampa and Puna provinces were established with species whose distributions had not previously been analysed; (2) a new area of endemism was established in extreme southern South America, in Tierra del Fuego; (3) two new areas of diversification, which include Panama and central Chile, were identified; (4) a spatial association was identified between the separation of Chiloe Island from the continent and the diversification in Andean species; (5) a north–south track axis and latitudinal node intervals were identified, interpreted as spatial responses to glaciation or glacial retreat in the Andes; and (6) a spatial coincidence of areas of endemism, of diversification and high species richness in the Muscidae was discovered. The analysis of a complete database and the recognition of areas of diversification are extremely important in elucidating novel biogeographical patterns, which will in turn contribute to a better understanding of the geographical patterns of evolution in the Muscidae.     

Taxonomy of the Colocasiomyia gigantea species group (Diptera,Drosophilidae), with descriptions of four new species from Yunnan,China

Species of the genus Colocasiomyia de Meijere feed/breed on inflorescences/infructescences of the plants from the families Araceae, Arecaceae and Magnoliaceae. Although most of them utilize plants from the subfamily Aroideae of Araceae, three species of the recently established C. gigantea species group make use of plants of the subfamily Monsteroideae. We describe four new species of the gigantea group found from Yunnan, China: Colocasiomyia longifilamentata Li & Gao, sp. n., C. longivalva Li & Gao, sp. n., C. hailini Li & Gao, sp. n., and C. yini Li & Gao, sp. n. The species delimitation is proved in virtue of not only morphology but also DNA barcodes, i.e., sequences of the partial mitochondrial COI (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) gene. Some nucleotide sites with fixed status in the alignment of the COI sequences (658 sites in length) are used as “pure” molecular diagnostic characters to delineate species in the gigantea group.     

Non-woody life-form contribution to vascular plant species richness in a tropical American forest

We provide total vascular plant species counts for three 1-ha plots in deciduous, semi-deciduous and evergreen forests in central Bolivia. Species richness ranged from 297 species and 22,360 individuals/ha in the dry deciduous forest to 382 species and 31,670 individuals/ha in the evergreen forest. Orchidaceae, Pteridophyta and Leguminosae were among the most species-rich major plant groups in each plot, and Peperomia (Piperaceae), Pleurothallis (Orchidaceae) and Tillandsia (Bromeliaceae), all epiphytes, were the most species-rich genera. This dominance of a few but very diverse and/or widespread taxa contrasted with the low compositional similarity between plots. In a neotropical context, these Central Bolivian forest plots are similar in total species richness to other dry deciduous and humid montane forests, but less rich than most Amazonian forests. Nevertheless, lianas, terrestrial herbs and especially epiphytes proved to be of equal or higher species richness than most other neotropical forest inventories from which data are available. We therefore highlight the importance of non-woody life-forms (especially epiphytes and terrestrial herbs) in Andean foothill forest ecosystems in terms of species richness and numbers of individuals, representing in some cases nearly 50% of the species and more than 75% of the individuals. These figures stress the need for an increased inventory effort on non-woody plant groups in order to accurately direct conservation actions. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Nested areas of endemism analysis

Aim  To develop and evaluate a nested clade approach to aid in the determination of areas of endemism (AoE) in biogeographical studies.
Methods  We adapted the nested clade analysis (NCA) to studies of areas of endemism. For this purpose we adapted several of the programs currently in use. Two data sets were examined using this approach – one involving Sciobius in southern Africa and the other involving terrestrial mammals in Mexico.
Results  Nested clade analysis as applied to areas of endemism produced results similar to those of previous analyses of Sciobus in southern Africa. An analysis of terrestrial mammals in Mexico supports the designation of some biogeographical provinces as areas of endemism while suggesting that other provinces may comprise composite distributions that should be subdivided.
Main conclusions  The nested clade analysis approach utilized primarily in genetic analysis of phylogeographical patterns in population biology studies can be adapted to understanding AoE in the realm of biogeography. This approach offers a statistical paradigm to evaluate AoE suggested by parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE) trees.     

Genetic structure of the star sea squirt, Botryllus schlosseri, introduced in southern European harbours

The introduction of new genetic variants or species is often caused by maritime transport between harbours. Botryllus schlosseri is a cosmopolitan ascidian species that is found in both harbours and open shore habitats. In order to determine the influence of ship traffic on the genetic structure and phylogeography of B. schlosseri in southern Europe, we analyzed the variability of a fragment of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). We sampled seven Atlanto-Mediterranean harbour populations and three open-shore populations. In addition, we sequenced some colonies from the US-Atlantic coast and from other Mediterranean localities to perform phylogenetic analyses. Although the number of polymorphic sites recorded (25.8%) was within the range observed in other population studies based on ascidian COI sequences, the haplotypic diversity (16 haplotypes out of 181 sequences) was much lower. Moreover, a lack of intermediate haplotypes was observed. This pattern of high nucleotide diversity and low haplotype diversity was consistent with introduction events of a few divergent haplotypes. We found a strong genetic structure in the study populations. Gene flow was only appreciable between some harbour populations. Harbour- and open-shore populations were well differentiated, although there was no evidence for isolation by distance. A nested clade analysis pointed to long-distance colonization, possibly coupled with subsequent fragmentation, as the underlying process. Our results suggest that B. schlosseri entered the study area via harbour-hopping, possibly through recurrent introduction events. The haplotypes from North America and most of the European ones were grouped in the same phylogenetic clade. This suggests occasional gene flow between both continents, probably through ship transport.     

Phylogeography of the flat-tailed horned lizard (Phrynosoma mcallii) and systematics of the P. mcallii-platyrhinos mtDNA complex

Two species of horned lizards are sympatric along the periphery of the Salton Trough. Phrynosoma mcallii, endemic to the trough, is of conservation concern because its limited habitat has been fragmented by human activities. A more common and widespread species, Phrynosoma platyrhinos, occurs around the periphery of the trough and much further to the North. The two species are syntopic at a few localities, where morphological intermediates have also been found. Here, we used nested clade phylogeographical analysis (NCPA) and analysis of molecular variance (amova), to examine 781 bp of mitochondrial DNA (nad4 and two tRNAs) from 82 individuals of P. mcallii. We tested whether populations of this species were recently connected, or if they were historically isolated prior to human modification of the region. Our NCPA results indicated significant population structure associated with the Colorado River, suggesting limited gene flow and potential isolation across this barrier. Populations west of the Colorado River, currently isolated from one another by human development, show less genetic differentiation. We also collected homologous sequence data from 34 individuals of P. platyrhinos and seven specimens morphologically intermediate between P. mcallii and P. platyrhinos, as a preliminary investigation of hybridization between these two species. From phylogenetic results of these data, we identified a species (Phrynosoma goodei) previously recognized as a subspecies of P. platyrhinos. Six of the morphologically intermediate specimens shared mtDNA haplotypes with P. goodei, while one was nested among P. mcallii haplotypes.