The importance of ‘tooglies’ to the ethnography of F.E. Williams,government anthropologist

The theoretical orientation, encapsulated in the semi‐serious concept of ‘tooglies'of F.E. Williams, government anthropologist for the Territory of Papua in the inter‐war period, is considered. His ideas about culture change are contrasted with those of Bronislaw Malinowski, who acted as his mentor at one time. His treatment of the social organisational anomaly of Sogeri Koiari ‘sex affiliation’, often cited as a case of parallel bilineal descent, is compared with Margaret Mead's analysis of the ‘Mundugumor ropes’, which is classed as the opposite, cross‐sex bilineal descent. It is shown that Williams was able to get a clearer insight into this anomalous data than Mead and Fortune, and, on the whole, worked with an understanding of culture and Papuan social organisation that presages the relational approach of today.     

EFFECTS OF VARIATIONS IN LIGHT INTENSITY ON THE EFFICIENCY OF GROWTH OF SKELETONEMA COSTATUM (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE) IN A CYCLOSTAT1

The relative importance of respiration and organic carbon release to the efficiency of carbon specific growth of Skeletonema costatum (Grev.) Clave was evaluated over a light range from 1500–15 μE · m^?2· s^?1. Net growth efficiency ranged from 0.45–0.69 with a maximum at 130 μE · m^?2· s^?1. Respiration was 93% or more of the variations in growth efficiency. Organic carbon release ranged from 0–7% of gross production and increased with light intensity. Carbon specific particulate production was a hyperbolic function of incident light intensity and was related exponentially to particulate carbon production per unit chlorophyll a. Full sunlight conditions, 1500 μE · m^?2· s^?1, did not induce photoinhibition of gross production. Variations in the efficiency of growth of S. costatum were minimized over a wide range of light intensities mainly because of variations in cellular pigments which permitted the efficient utilization of available light energy, and a reduction in the losses of carbon which increases the growth rate, possibly as a consequence of the recycling of respired carbon within the cell.     

Metabolic,physiological and kinetic aspects of the alcoholic fermentation of whey permeate by Kluyveromyces fragilis NRRL 665 and Kluyveromyces lactis NCYC 571

Optimum growth conditions for the fermentation of non-concentrated whey permeate by Kluyveromyces fragilis NRRL 665 have been defined. Use of 3.75 g yeast extract l^?1, a growth temperature of 38°C and a pH of 4.0 allowed a maximum productivity of 5.23 g ethanol l^?1 h^?1 in continuous culture with a yield 91% of theoretical. Complete batch fermentation of permeate with 100 g lactose l^?1 was possible with a maximum specific growth rate of 0.276 h^?1 without any change in ethanol yield. Fermentation of concentrated permeate resulted, however, in a general decrease of specific substrate consumption rate, demonstrated by the inability to completely convert an initial 90 or 150 g lactose l^?1 in continuous culture, even at dilution rates as low as 0.05 and 0.08 h^?1, respectively. The decrease could be related to substrate inhibition, to an increase in osmotic pressure caused by lactose and salts, and to ethanol inhibition of both alcohol and biomass yield. The decrease in specific productivity could be counterbalanced by use of high cell density cultures, obtained by cell recycle of K. fragilis. Fermentation of a non-concentrated permeáte at a dilution rate of 1 h^?1 resulted in a productivity of 22 g l^?1 h^?1 at 22 g ethanol l^?1. Cell recycle using flocculating Kluyveromyces lactis NCYC 571 was also tested. With this strain a productivity of 9.3 g l^?1 h^?1 at 45 g product l^?1 was attained at a dilution rate of 0.2 h^?1, with an initial lactose concentration of 95 g l^?1.     

Effect of iron concentration on hydrogen fermentation

The effect of the iron concentration in the external environment on hydrogen production was studied using sucrose solution and the mixed microorganisms from a soybean-meal silo. The iron concentration ranged from 0 to 4000 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹. The temperature was maintained at 37°C. The maximum specific hydrogen production rate was found to be 24.0 mlg⁻¹ VSSh⁻¹ at 4000 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹. The specific production rate of butyrate increased with increasing iron concentration from 0 to 20 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹, and decreased with increasing iron concentration from 20 to 4000 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹. The maximum specific production rates of ethanol (682 mgg⁻¹ VSSh⁻¹) and butanol (47.0 mgg⁻¹ VSSh⁻¹) were obtained at iron concentrations of 5 and 3 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹, respectively. The maximum hydrogen production yield of 131.9 mlg⁻¹ sucrose was obtained at the iron concentration of 800 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹. The maximum yields of acetate (389.3 mgg⁻¹ sucrose), propionate (37.8 mgg⁻¹ sucrose), and butyrate (196.5 mg g⁻¹ sucros) were obtained at iron concentrations of 3, 200 and 200 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹, respectively. The sucrose degradation efficiencies were close to 1.0 when iron concentrations were between 200 and 800 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹. The maximum biomass production yield was 0.283 gVSSg⁻¹ sucrose at an iron concentration of 3000 mgFeCl₂ l⁻¹.     

Temporal and spatial variation characteristics of China shrubland net primary production and its response to climate change from 2001 to 2013

Aims Net primary production (NPP) is the input to terrestrial ecosystem carbon pool. Climate and land use change affect NPP significantly. Shrublands occupy more than 20% of the terrestrial area of China, and their NPP is comparable to those of the forests. Our objective was to estimate China shrubland NPP from 2001 to 2013, and to analyze its variation and response to climate change.Methods We used a Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach (CASA) model to estimate the NPP of six shrubland types in China from 2001 to 2013. Furthermore, we used Theil-Sen slope combined with Mann-kendall test to analyze its spatial variation and a linear regression of one-variable model to analyze its inter- and intra-annual variation. Finally, a multi-factor linear regression model was used to analyze its response to climate change.Important findings We found the annual mean NPP of China shrubland was 281.82 g•m^-2•a^-1. The subtropical evergreen shrubland has the maximum NPP of 420.47 g•m^-2•a^-1, while the high cold desert shrubland has the minimum NPP of 52.65 g•m^-2•a^-1. The countrywide shrublands NPP increased at the rate of 1.23 g•m^-2•a^-1, the relative change rate was 5.99%. The temperate deciduous shrubland NPP increased the fastest with a speed of 3.05 g•m^-2•a^-1 and subalpine evergreen shrubland had a decreasing trend with a speed of -0.73 g•m^-2•a^-1. Moreover, the other four shrublands NPP had a growing trend, only subalpine deciduous shrubland NPP did not change significantly. The response of NPP to climate change of different seasons varies to different shrubland types. In general, the NPP variation was mainly affected by precipitation, and the spring warming also contributed to it. The increase of countrywide shrubland NPP may promote its contribution to the regional ecosystem function.     

Advances in fundamental and applied studies in China of fungal biocontrol agents for use against arthropod pests

Entomopathogenic fungi, such as Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, are environmentally friendly biocontrol agents (BCAs) against various arthropod pests. We provide an overview to the past-decade advances in fungal BCA research and application in China. Since 1960s, fungal BCAs have been mass-produced for application and at present, thousands of tons of their formulations are annually applied to control forest, agricultural, greenhouse and grassland insect pests throughout the country. Apart from technical advances in mass production, formulation and application of fungal BCAs, basic studies on the genomics, molecular biology, genetic engineering and population genetics of fungal entomopathogens have rapidly progressed in the past few years in China. The completed genomic studies of M. anisopliae, Metarhizium acridum, B. bassiana and Cordyceps militaris provide profound insights into crucial gene functions, fungal pathogenesis, host–pathogen interactions and mechanisms involved in fungal sexuality. New knowledge gained from the basic studies has been applied to improve fungal virulence and stress tolerance for developing more efficacious and field-persistent mycoinsecticides by means of microbial biotechnology, such as genetic engineering. To alleviate environmental safety concerns, more efforts are needed to generate new data not only on the effects of engineered BCAs on target and non-target arthropods but also on their potential effects on gene flow and genetic recombination before field release.     

Pulsatile urea excretion in the gulf toadfish: mechanisms and controls

Opsanus beta expresses a full complement of ornithine–urea cycle (OUC) enzymes and is facultatively ureotelic, reducing ammonia-N excretion and maintaining urea-N excretion under conditions of crowding/confinement. The switch to ureotelism is keyed by a modest rise in cortisol associated with a substantial increase in cytosolic glutamine synthetase for trapping of ammonia-N and an upregulation of the capacity of the mitochondrial OUC to use glutamine-N. The entire day's urea-N production is excreted in 1 or 2 short-lasting pulses, which occur exclusively through the gills. The pulse event is not triggered by an internal urea-N threshold, is not due to pulsatile urea-N production, but reflects pulsatile activation of a specific branchial excretion mechanism that rapidly clears urea-N from the body fluids. A bidirectional facilitated diffusion transporter, with pharmacological similarity to the UT-A type transporters of the mammalian kidney, is activated in the gills, associated with an increased trafficking of dense-cored vesicles in the pavement cells. An 1814 kB cDNA (‘tUT’) coding for a 475–amino acid protein with approximately 62% homology to mammalian UT-A's has been cloned and facilitates phloretin-sensitive urea transport when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. tUT occurs only in gill tissue, but tUT mRNA levels do not change over the pulse cycle, suggesting that tUT regulation occurs at a level beyond mRNA. Circulating cortisol levels consistently decline prior to a pulse event and rise thereafter. When cortisol is experimentally clamped at high levels, natural pulse events are suppressed in size but not in frequency, an effect mediated through glucocorticoid receptors. The cortisol decline appears to be permissive, rather than the actual trigger of the pulse event. Fluctuations in circulating AVT levels do not correlate with pulses; and injections of AVT (at supraphysiological levels) elicit only minute urea-N pulses. However, circulating 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) levels fluctuate considerably and physiological doses of 5-HT cause large urea-N pulse events. When the efferent cranial nerves to the gills are sectioned, natural urea pulse events persist, suggesting that direct motor output from the CNS to the gill is not the proximate control.     

Soybean leaf urease: Comparison with seed urease

Soybeans, Glycine max (L.) Merr., from ureides for transport of nitrogen from the root nodule to the shoot. The most direct routes for ureide utilization include the degradation of ureide-derived urea to NH₃ and CO₂. Ureolytic activity was found in leaf disks of soybean and exhbited optimal activity at pH 7 in the presence of a high concentration of urea (250 m M ). In vitro studies showed neither urea amidolyase nor urea dehydrogenase activity in soybean leaves and the ureolytic activity was characterized as urease. Several biochemical properties of soybean leaf urease were determined and compared to seed urease properties. Soybean leaf urease differed from that of seed in five ways: pH optima (5.25 and 8.75), apparent K_m (0.8 m M ), no inhibition by hydroxyurea, faster electrophoretic mobility and no cross-reactivity with soybean seed urease antibodies. The data suggest that urease is the primary urea metabolizing enzyme present in soybean leaves. The properties of soybean leaf urease support the conclusion that a unique isozyme of urease is present in leaf tissue.     

Measurements of gross and net ecosystem productivity and water vapour exchange of a Pinus ponderosa ecosystem,and an evaluation of two generalized models

Net ecosystem productivity (NEP), net primary productivity (NPP), and water vapour exchange of a mature Pinus ponderosa forest (44°30′ N, 121°37′ W) growing in a region subject to summer drought were investigated along with canopy assimilation and respiratory fluxes. This paper describes seasonal and annual variation in these factors, and the evaluation of two generalized models of carbon and water balance (PnET‐II and 3‐PG) with a combination of traditional measurements of NPP, respiration and water stress, and eddy covariance measurements of above‐and below‐canopy CO₂ and water vapour exchange. The objective was to evaluate the models using two years of traditional and eddy covariance measurements, and to use the models to help interpret the relative importance of processes controlling carbon and water vapour exchange in a water‐limited pine ecosystem throughout the year. PnET‐II is a monthly time‐step model that is driven by nitrogen availability through foliar N concentration, and 3‐PG is a monthly time‐step quantum‐efficiency model constrained by extreme temperatures, drought, and vapour pressure deficits. Both models require few parameters and have the potential to be applied at the watershed to regional scale. There was 2/3 less rainfall in 1997 than in 1996, providing a challenge to modelling the water balance, and consequently the carbon balance, when driving the models with the two years of climate data, sequentially. Soil fertility was not a key factor in modelling processes at this site because other environmental factors limited photosynthesis and restricted projected leaf area index to ～1.6. Seasonally, GEP and LE were overestimated in early summer and underestimated through the rest of the year. The model predictions of annual GEP, NEP and water vapour exchange were within 1–39% of flux measurements, with greater disparity in 1997 because soil water never fully recharged. The results suggest that generalized models can provide insights to constraints on productivity on an annual basis, using a minimum of site data.     

Discharge,legacy effects and nutrient availability as determinants of temporal patterns in biofilm metabolism and accrual in an arctic river

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