A novel α-conotoxin MII-sensitive nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulates [(3) H]-GABA release in the superficial layers of the mouse superior colliculus

Mouse superficial superior colliculus (SuSC) contains dense GABAergic innervation and diverse nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes. Pharmacological and genetic approaches were used to investigate the subunit compositions of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) expressed on mouse SuSC GABAergic terminals. [(125) I]-Epibatidine competition-binding studies revealed that the α3β2* and α6β2* nicotinic subtype-selective peptide α-conotoxin MII-blocked binding to 40 ± 5% of SuSC nAChRs. Acetylcholine-evoked [(3) H]-GABA release from SuSC crude synaptosomal preparations is calcium dependent, blocked by the voltage-sensitive calcium channel blocker, cadmium, and the nAChR antagonist mecamylamine, but is unaffected by muscarinic, glutamatergic, P2X and 5-HT3 receptor antagonists. Approximately 50% of nAChR-mediated SuSC [(3) H]-GABA release is inhibited by α-conotoxin MII. However, the highly α6β2*-subtype-selective α-conotoxin PIA did not affect [(3) H]-GABA release. Nicotinic subunit-null mutant mouse experiments revealed that ACh-stimulated SuSC [(3) H]-GABA release is entirely β2 subunit-dependent. α4 subunit deletion decreased total function by >90%, and eliminated α-conotoxin MII-resistant release. ACh-stimulated SuSC [(3) H]-GABA release was unaffected by β3, α5 or α6 nicotinic subunit deletions. Together, these data suggest that a significant proportion of mouse SuSC nicotinic agonist-evoked GABA-release is mediated by a novel, α-conotoxin MII-sensitive α3α4β2 nAChR. The remaining α-conotoxin MII-resistant, nAChR agonist-evoked SuSC GABA release appears to be mediated via α4β2* subtype nAChRs.     

Tamoxifen depresses glutamate release through inhibition of voltage-dependent Ca2+ entry and protein kinase Cα in rat cerebral cortex nerve terminals

This study was aimed at examining the effect of tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor modulator, on the release of endogenous glutamate in rat cerebral cortex nerve terminals (synaptosomes) and exploring the possible mechanism. Tamoxifen inhibited the release of glutamate that was evoked by the K(+) channel blocker 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), and this phenomenon was concentration-dependent and insensitive to the estrogen receptor antagonist. The effect of tamoxifen on the evoked glutamate release was prevented by the chelating extracellular Ca(2+) ions, and by the vesicular transporter inhibitor bafilomycin A1. However, the glutamate transporter inhibitor dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate did not have any effect on the action of tamoxifen. Tamoxifen did not alter the resting synaptosomal membrane potential or 4-AP-mediated depolarization whereas it decreased the 4-AP-induced increase in cytosolic [Ca(2+)]. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of tamoxifen on the evoked glutamate release was abolished by the Ca(v)2.2 (N-type) and Ca(v)2.1 (P/Q-type) channel blocker ω-conotoxin MVIIC, but not by the ryanodine receptor blocker dantrolene, or the mitochondrial Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger blocker CGP37157. In addition, the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors GF109203X or Ro318220 prevented tamoxifen from inhibiting glutamate release. Western blotting showed that tamoxifen significantly decreased the 4-AP-induced phosphorylation of PKC and PKCα. Together, these results suggest that tamoxifen inhibits glutamate release from rat cortical synaptosomes, through the suppression of presynaptic voltage-dependent Ca(2+) entry and PKC activity.     

Sequence diversity of O-superfamily conopetides from Conus marmoreus native to Hainan

The full-length cDNAs of six new O-superfamily conotoxins (CTX) were cloned and sequenced from Conus marmoreus native to Hainan in China South Sea using RT-PCR and 3′-RACE. Six novel conotoxin precursors encoded by these cDNAs consist of three typical regions of signal, pro-peptide and mature peptide. All the six toxin regions share a common O-superfamily cysteine pattern (C-C-CC-C-C, with three disulfide bridges). The predicted precursors are composed of 73–88 amino acids, and the predicted mature peptides consist of 26–34 amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis of new conotoxins from C. marmoreus from the present study and published homologue T-superfamily sequences from other Conus species was performed systematically. Patterns of sequence divergence for three regions of signal, pro-region and mature peptides, as well as Cys codon usage define the major O-superfamily branches and suggest how these separate branches arose. Percent identities of the amino acid sequences of the signal region exhibited high conservation, whereas the sequences of the mature peptides ranged from almost identical to highly divergent between inter- and intra-species. Notably, the diversity of the pro-region was also high with intermediate divergence between that observed in signal and toxin regions. Amino acid sequences and their mode of action (target) of previously identified conotoxins from molluscivorous C. marmoreus for the known conotoxins classes are discussed in detail. The data presented are new and should pave the way for chemical synthesis of these unique conotoxins for to allow determination of the molecular targets of these peptides, and also to provide clues for a better understanding of the phylogeny of these peptides.     

cDNA cloning of two novel T-superfamily conotoxins from Conus leopardus

The full-length cDNAs of two novel T-superfamily conotoxins,Lp5.1 and Lp5.2,were clonedfrom a vermivorous cone snail Conus leopardus using 3'/5'-rapid amplification of cDNA ends.The cDNA ofLp5.1 encodes a precursor of 65 residues,including a 22-residue signal peptide,a 28-residue propeptide anda 15-residue mature peptide.Lp5.1 is processed at the common signal site -X-Arg- immediately before themature peptide sequences.In the case of Lp5.2,the precursor includes a 25-residue signal peptide anda 43-residue sequence comprising the propeptide and mature peptide,which is probably cleaved to yield a29-residue propeptide and a 14-residue mature toxin.Although these two conotoxins share a similar signalsequence and a conserved disulfide pattern with the known T-superfamily,the pro-region and mature peptidesare of low identity,especially Lp5.2 with an identity as low as 10.7% compared with the reference Mr5.1a.The elucidated cDNAs of these two toxins will facilitate a better understanding of the species distribution,the sequence diversity of T-superfamily conotoxins,the special gene structure and the evolution of thesepeptides.     

Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) effects on L-, N-, and P/Q-type voltage-operated calcium channels

1. We have previously reported that atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) decreases neuronal norepinephrine (NE) release. The mechanism that mediates NE release from presynaptic membrane to synaptic cleft is a strongly calcium-dependent process. The modulator effect of ANF may be related to modifications in calcium influx at the presynaptic nerve ending by interaction with voltage-operated calcium channels (VOCCs).2. On this basis we investigated the effects of ANF on K⁺-induced ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake and evoked neuronal NE release in the presence of specific L-, N-, and P/Q-type calcium channel blockers in the rat hypothalamus.3. Results showed that ANF inhibited K⁺-induced ⁴⁵Ca²⁺ uptake in a concentration-dependent fashion. Concentration–response curves to VOCC blockers nifedipine (NFD, L-type channel blocker), -conotoxin GVIA (CTX, N-type channel blocker), and -agatoxin IVA (AGA, P/Q-type channel blocker) showed that all the blockers decreased NE release. Incubation of ANF plus NFD showed an additive effect as compared to NFD or ANF alone. However, when the hypothalamic tissue was incubated in the presence of ANF plus CTX or AGA there were no differences in neuronal NE release as compared to calcium channel blockers or ANF alone.4. These results suggest that ANF decreases NE release by an L-type calcium channel independent mechanism by inhibiting N- and/or P/Q-type calcium channels at the neuronal presynaptic level. Thus, ANF modulates neuronal NE release through different mechanisms involving presynaptic calcium channel inhibition.     

Role of N‐ and L‐type calcium channels in depolarization‐induced activation of tyrosine hydroxylase and release of norepinephrine by sympathetic cell bodies and nerve terminals

Multiple types of voltage‐activated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels are present in all nerve cells examined so far; however, the underlying functional consequences of their presence is often unclear. We have examined the contribution of Ca²⁺ influx through N‐ and L‐ type voltage‐activated Ca²⁺ channels in sympathetic neurons to the depolarization‐induced activation of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate‐limiting enzyme in norepinephrine (NE) synthesis, and the depolarization‐induced release of NE. Superior cervical ganglia (SCG) were decentralized 4 days prior to their use to eliminate the possibility of indirect effects of depolarization via preganglionic nerve terminals. The presence of both ω‐conotoxin GVIA (1 μM), a specific blocker of N‐type channels, and nimodipine (1 μM), a specific blocker of L‐type Ca²⁺ channels, was necessary to inhibit completely the stimulation of TH activity by 55 mM K⁺, indicating that Ca²⁺ influx through both types of channels contributes to enzyme activation. In contrast, K⁺ stimulation of TH activity in nerve fibers and terminals in the iris could be inhibited completely by ω‐conotoxin GVIA alone and was unaffected by nimodipine as previously shown. K⁺ stimulation of NE release from both ganglia and irises was also blocked completely when ω‐conotoxin GVIA was included in the medium, while nimodipine had no significant effect in either tissue. These results indicate that particular cellular processes in specific areas of a neuron are differentially dependent on Ca²⁺ influx through N‐ and L‐type Ca²⁺ channels. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 40: 137–148, 1999     

δ-Conotoxin SuVIA suggests an evolutionary link between ancestral predator defence and the origin of fish-hunting behaviour in carnivorous cone snails

Some venomous cone snails feed on small fishes using an immobilizing combination of synergistic venom peptides that target K_v and Na_v channels. As part of this envenomation strategy, δ-conotoxins are potent ichtyotoxins that enhance Na_v channel function. δ-Conotoxins belong to an ancient and widely distributed gene superfamily, but any evolutionary link from ancestral worm-eating cone snails to modern piscivorous species has not been elucidated. Here, we report the discovery of SuVIA, a potent vertebrate-active δ-conotoxin characterized from a vermivorous cone snail (Conus suturatus). SuVIA is equipotent at hNa_V1.3, hNa_V1.4 and hNa_V1.6 with EC₅₀s in the low nanomolar range. SuVIA also increased peak hNa_V1.7 current by approximately 75% and shifted the voltage-dependence of activation to more hyperpolarized potentials from –15 mV to –25 mV, with little effect on the voltage-dependence of inactivation. Interestingly, the proximal venom gland expression and pain-inducing effect of SuVIA in mammals suggest that δ-conotoxins in vermivorous cone snails play a defensive role against higher order vertebrates. We propose that δ-conotoxins originally evolved in ancestral vermivorous cones to defend against larger predators including fishes have been repurposed to facilitate a shift to piscivorous behaviour, suggesting an unexpected underlying mechanism for this remarkable evolutionary transition.     

Oxidative folding and preparation of α‐conotoxins for use in high‐throughput structure–activity relationship studies

α‐Conotoxins are peptide neurotoxins that selectively inhibit various subtypes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. They are important research tools for studying numerous pharmacological disorders, with profound potential for developing drug leads for treating pain, tobacco addiction, and other conditions. They are characterized by the presence of two disulfide bonds connected in a globular arrangement, which stabilizes a bioactive helical conformation. Despite extensive structure–activity relationship studies that have produced α‐conotoxin analogs with increased potency and selectivity towards specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes, the efficient production of diversity‐oriented α‐conotoxin combinatorial libraries has been limited by inefficient folding and purification procedures. We have investigated the optimized conditions for the reliable folding of α‐conotoxins using simplified oxidation procedures for use in the accelerated production of synthetic combinatorial libraries of α‐conotoxins. To this end, the effect of co‐solvent, redox reagents, pH, and temperature on the proportion of disulfide bond isomers was determined for α‐conotoxins exhibiting commonly known Cys loop spacing frameworks. In addition, we have developed high‐throughput ‘semi‐purification’ methods for the quick and efficient parallel preparation of α‐conotoxin libraries for use in accelerated structure–activity relationship studies. Our simplified procedures represent an effective strategy for the preparation of large arrays of correctly folded α‐conotoxin analogs and permit the rapid identification of active hits directly from high‐throughput pharmacological screening assays. Copyright © 2012 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

几种南海芋螺二硫键异构酶的克隆及进化分析

目的:从来自中国南海的4种芋螺中克隆出包含完整3’和5’非翻译区的蛋白质二硫键异构酶(PDI)全基因序列,并对其进行序列及进化分析。方法:根据各种生物PDI基因的保守区域设计引物,利用3’和5’cDNA末端快速扩增(RACE)方法克隆出PDI全基因序列,并通过生物信息学方法对各芋螺PDI序列进行分析。结果与结论:从中国南海玉女芋螺、黑星芋螺、堂皇芋螺、桶形芋螺cDNA中克隆出包含有完整3’和5’非翻译区的PDI全基因序列;分析结果表明各芋螺之间的同源性大于90%,而与对虾、人类、酿酒酵母的同源性均小于60%;各芋螺PDI与其他生物的2个活性位点序列高度保守,而底物结合位点具有物种特异性,进化树显示各芋螺PDI的特征可能受其捕食食性影响。     

大鼠转铁蛋白受体单链抗体和芋螺毒素SO3的融合蛋白在大肠杆菌中的表达

人工合成了芋螺毒素SO3的基因片段,通过链延伸方法获得了SO3的全长基因。在此基础上,将SO3基因插入到含抗大鼠转铁蛋白受体的单链抗体基因的pTIG-Trx表达载体中,构建含抗大鼠转铁蛋白受体单链抗体和SO3融合基因的重组表达载体,转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)和Origmia(DE3)／DsbC并得到了表达,该融合蛋白主要以包涵体形式存在。为进一步研究芋螺毒素SO3跨血脑屏障转运和治疗作用奠定了基础。