The effect of antibiotics on the photocycle and protoncycle of purple membrane suspensions

The interrelation was studied between the phototransient absorbing maximally at 412 nm (M₄₁₂) and light-induced proton release under steady-state conditions in aqueous suspensions of ‘purple membrane’ derived from Halobacterium halobium. The decay of M₄₁₂ was slowed down by the simultaneous application of the ionophoric antibiotics valinomycin and beauvericin. The former had only slight activity alone and the latter was effective only in conjunction with valinomycin. The steady-state concentration of M₄₁₂ which was formed on illumination was a direct function of the concentration of valinomycin. Maximum stabilization of M₄₁₂ was obtained when the valinomycin was approximately equimolar with the bacteriorhodopsin. Addition of salts to the medium increased the number of protons released per molecule of M₄₁₂ without affecting the level of M₄₁₂ which was produced by continuous illumination. The effectiveness of the salts in this respect depended on the nature of the cation. Ca²⁺ and their antagonists La³⁺ and ruthenium red were found to have especially high affinity for the system. The extent of light-induced acidification could not be enhanced by increasing the pH of the medium from 6.5 to 7.8. The possible mechanism of action of the ionophores and of the cations on the photocycle and on the proton cycle is discussed.     

Total in vitro biosynthesis of the nonribosomal macrolactone peptide valinomycin

Natural products are important because of their significant pharmaceutical properties such as antiviral, antimicrobial, and anticancer activity. Recent breakthroughs in DNA sequencing reveal that a great number of cryptic natural product biosynthetic gene clusters are encoded in microbial genomes, for example, those of Streptomyces species. However, it is still challenging to access compounds from these clusters because many source organisms are uncultivable or the genes are silent during laboratory cultivation. To address this challenge, we develop an efficient cell-free platform for the rapid, in vitro total biosynthesis of the nonribosomal peptide valinomycin as a model. We achieve this goal in two ways. First, we used a cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) system to express the entire valinomycin biosynthetic gene cluster (>19 kb) in a single-pot reaction, giving rise to approximately 37 μg/L of valinomycin after optimization. Second, we coupled CFPS with cell-free metabolic engineering system by mixing two enzyme-enriched cell lysates to perform a two-stage biosynthesis. This strategy improved valinomycin production ~5000-fold to nearly 30 mg/L. We expect that cell-free biosynthetic systems will provide a new avenue to express, discover, and characterize natural product gene clusters of interest in vitro.     

Transport and utilization of methionine sulfoxide in the rabbit

Methionine sulfoxide is transported into purified intestinal and renal brush border membrane vesicles from rabbit by an Na⁺-dependent mechanism and is accumulated inside the vesicles against the concentration gradient. Both in intestine and kidney, the rate of transport is enhanced with increasing concentrations of Na⁺ in the external medium. Increasing the Na⁺ gradient reduces the apparent K_t for methionine sulfoxide without causing any change in V_max. With an outward K⁺ gradient (vesicle > medium), valinomycin stimulates the Na⁺-gradient-dependent transport of methionine sulfoxide in the kidney, showing the electrogenicity of the transport process. A number of amino acids inhibit methionine sulfoxide transport in both the intestine and kidney. An enzymatic activity capable of reducing methionine sulfoxide to methionine is present in the intestinal mucosa, renal cortex and liver. The activity is highest in renal cortex and lowest in intestine. The methionine sulfoxide-reducing activity is stimulated by NADH, NADPH, glutathione and dithiothreitol and the potency of the stimulation is in the order: dithiothreitol > NADPH > glutathione > NADH.     

Cyclosporin A does not protect the disruption of the inner mitochondrial membrane potential induced by potassium ionophores in intact K562 cells

Mitochondrial dysfunction has been widely associated with programmed cell death. Studies of intact cells are important for the understanding of the process of cell death and its relation to mitochondrial physiology. Using cytofluorometric approaches we studied the mitochondrial behavior in an erythroleukemic cell line. The effects of protonophore carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), potassium exchanger (nigericin), potassium ionophore (valinomycin), Na+K+-ATPase inhibitor (ouabain) and mitochondrial permeability transition pore inhibitor (cyclosporin A) were evaluated. Cyclosporin A (CSA) was very effective in attenuating the disruption of inner mitochondrial membrane potential induced by CCCP. However, CSA failed to protect the loss of inner mitochondrial membrane potential induced by potassium intracellular flux manipulation. Our findings suggest that mitochondrial cyclophilin is not involved in the cell events mediated by deregulation of potassium flux, underlining the need for further studies in intact tumor cells for a better understanding of the involvement of mitochondria physiology in cell death events.     

Energized transport of potassium ions in the absence of valinomycin by cytochrome c oxidase-reconstituted vesicles

Valinomycin-independent energized uptake of K⁺ was observed in cytochrome c oxidase reconstituted proteoliposome. The rate of K⁺ influx was proportoinal to the magnitude of electron flux. The energized uptake of K⁺ was abolished by p-trifluoromethoxycarbonylcyanide phenylhydrazone or by nigericin. Using the safranine fluorescence technique, it was demonstrated that even in the absence of valinomycin, liposomes and proteoliposomes reconstituted with cytochrome c oxidase are able to discriminate between Na⁺ and K⁺ and show a preference for K⁺ in the presence of excess Na⁺.     

The effect of surface charge density on valinomycin-K+ complex formation in model membranes

The model membrane approach was used to investigate the surface charge effect on the ion-antibiotic complexation process. Mixed monolayers of valinomycin and lipids were spread on subphases containing K⁺ or Na⁺. The surface charge density was modified by spreading ionizable valinomycin analogs on aqueous subphases of different pH or by changing the nature of the lipid (neutral, negatively charged) in the mixed film. Surface pressure and surface potential measurements demonstrated that a neutral lipid (phosphatidylcholine) or positively charged valinomycin analogs didn't enhance the antibiotic complexing capacity. However, a maximal complexation is reached for a critical lipid concentration in the valinomycin-phosphatidylserine mixed film. The role of the surface charge on the valinomycin complexing properties was examined in terms of the Gouy-Chapman theory. As a consequence of the negative charge of the lipid monolayer, the K⁺ concentration near the surface is larger than the bulk concentration, by a Boltzmann factor. A good agreement was observed between the experimental results and the theoretical predictions. Conductance measurements of asymmetric bilayers containing a neutral lipid (egg lecithin) on one side and a negatively charged lipid (phosphatidylserine) on the other, confirm the role of the surface charge. Indeed, addition of K⁺ to the neutral side of the bilayer containing valinomycin had no effect on the conductance whereas addition of K⁺ to the charged side of the bilayer caused a 80-fold conductance increase.     

A novel method for the determination of electrical potentials across cellular membranes. II. Membrane potentials of acholeplasmas, mycoplasmas, streptococci and erythrocytes

The membrane potentials of Acholeplasma laidlawii, Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri, Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Streptococcus faecalis and human erythrocytes have been determined by applying a novel technique. The membrane potentials were calculated simply from potassium concentrations determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy, and gravimetry. The versatility of the new technique is demonstrated by comparing our results with data obtained by different techniques.     

Optical and electrical studies on dansyllysine-valinomycin in thin lipid membranes

Summary Dansyllysine-valinomycin, a fluorescent analogue of the ionophore valinomycin was synthesized and incorporated into black lipid membranes. Its concentration inside the membrane was measured fluorometrically and was also determined from electrical relaxation experiments, which were analyzed on the basis of a previously proposed carrier model. The results of both methods agreed within less than one order of magnitude. This appears satisfactory in view of the sources of error inherent in both procedures.A conductance increment per carrier molecule of about 3 · 10^{–17 –1} was obtained for dansyllysine-valinomycin in diphytanoyllecithin membranes at 25 C and 1M RbCl in the aqueous phases. This is about 400 times smaller compared to unmodified valinomycin in monoolein membranes. The difference is mainly caused by the change in the membrane properties and to a smaller extent by the structural modification of the carrier.     

Effects of valinomycin on lymphocytes independent of potassium permeability

10^?7 M valinomycin affects human lymphocytes in the following manner: (1) it is non-toxic; (2) it inhibits mitogenesis; (3) it causes a reduction in cell ATP; and (4) it causes a marked increase in steady-state Na⁺ exchange. However, it has a minimal effect on cell ion (K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) contents and no effect whatever on K⁺ exchange. Neither the fast nor the slow fraction of steady-state K⁺ exchange is affected by 10^?7 M valinomycin. The various reported effects of valinomycin on lymphocyte functions cannot be assumed to be due to changes in plasma membrane K⁺ permeability. The mechanism of the increase in steady-state Na⁺ exchange, and whether or not it is related to inhibition of mitogenesis, are unsettled issues.