Isolation and characterization of microsatellite markers from the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae

Fourteen polymorphic microsatellite markers were isolated from the entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, based on enriched genomic libraries. In order to assess allelic variability, the microsatellite loci were analysed in a collection of 34 isolates sampled from across Switzerland. The number of detected alleles in 14 loci ranged from two to eight and expected heterozygosity from 0.265 to 0.808. Because of the high expected heterozygosity, the 14 microsatellite loci are very useful for ecological studies and analysis of population diversity, and to identifying, monitoring, and tracking M. anisopliae strains applied as biological control agents.     

Sensitivity of respiratory metabolism and efficiency to foliar nitrogen during growth and maintenance

Scaling of respiration from the leaf to the canopy level currently depends on identification of physiological parameters that are tightly linked to respiration and that can readily be determined. Several recent studies have helped provide guides to predicting whole canopy respiration on the basis of foliar nitrogen (N). This approach is potentially powerful owing to the well‐described patterns of allocation of N that follow interception of radiation. In the present study, we investigated the sensitivity of the N–respiration correlation to environmental and developmental factors, in order to evaluate its usage for attempts to scale respiration to the organism and ecosystem level. We studied fully expanded, 1 and 2‐year‐old, and current‐year needles from canopies of Pinus radiata that had been treated (unthinned, thinned and thinned+fertilized treatments) in ways likely to induce a wide range of growth and respiratory responses. We examined respiration in detail during the growth period in spring and again at the end of summer, using calorespirometric methods (combined measurements of CO₂ and heat rates) to determine the respiration rates , instantaneous enthalpic growth rates (R_SGΔH_B, a measure of the conservation of electrons in anabolic products) and the enthalpy conversion efficiency (η_H) of needles differing in age. A general linear model revealed that was positively correlated with needle N, but this correlation was strongly dependent on the season and the needle age – indicating an important physiological difference between expanding young needles and fully expanded old needles. Furthermore, the strength of the correlation between needle N and respiration was comparatively weak for the current year, expanding foliage, indicating that factors other than foliage N significantly influenced the respiration of young needles. The analysis of instantaneous growth rates revealed two general processes. Older, nonexpanding foliage showed considerable rates of enthalpic growth (increases in enthalpy) that was mainly caused by the increment of lignin during secondary growth. Secondly, canopy development appeared dynamic and to be optimized according to environmental drivers and constraints – such as light and water availability. In late spring, needle extension slowed in the upper, but not the lower canopy, because the upper canopy appeared to be affected first by the onset of drought stress in late spring. Growth rates were reduced in the upper canopy despite greater rates of respiration, indicating higher demand of ATP for the maintenance of protein and for export of sugars. Consequently, the enthalpy conversion efficiency and enthalpic N productivity (enthalpic growth per unit N) were comparatively poor indicating advanced development of needles in the upper canopy. We suggest that the growth and maintenance paradigm of respiration is, at best, only moderately useful when applied to whole trees, and is not valid at the cellular level or that of the plant organ. A different concept, namely that of respiratory efficiency, seems a more suitable way to represent respiration in carbon (C) balance models and should help provide a better mechanistic understanding of how respiration affects the C conversion efficiency of plants, and ultimately the net primary productivity of ecosystems.     

Communication and Cognition in Primate Group Movement

We here review the communicative and cognitive processes underpinning collective group movement in animals. Generally, we identify 2 major axes to explain the dynamics of decision making in animal or human groups or aggregations: One describes whether the behavior is largely determined by simple rules such as keeping a specific distance from the neighbor, or whether global information is also factored in. The second axis describes whether or not the individual constituents of the group have overlapping or diverging interests. We then review the available evidence for baboons, which have been particularly well studied, but we also draw from further studies on other nonhuman primate species. Baboons and other nonhuman primates may produce specific signals in the group movement context, such as the notifying behavior of male hamadryas baboons at the departure from the sleeping site, or clear barks that are given by chacma baboons that have lost contact with the group or specific individuals. Such signals can be understood as expressions of specific motivational states of the individuals, but there is no evidence that the subjects intend to alter the knowledge state of the recipients. There is also no evidence for shared intentionality. The cognitive demands that are associated with decision making in the context of group coordination vary with the amount of information and possibly conflicting sources of information that need to be integrated. Thus, selective pressures should favor the use of signals that maintain group cohesion, while recipients should be selected to be able to make the decision that is in their own best interest in light of all the available information.     

The postcranial anatomy of Suminia getmanovi (Synapsida: Anomodontia), the earliest known arboreal tetrapod

The basal anomodont Suminia getmanovi Ivakhnenko, 1994 from the late Palaeozoic of Russia is highly specialized in its masticatory apparatus, and has been suggested to represent the earliest arboreal tetrapod in the fossil record. Its postcranial anatomy is described in detail for the first time, revealing a large number of autapomorphies for this small herbivore. These include a reduced number of presacral and therein dorsal vertebrae, an elongate neck, a long and possibly prehensile tail, a procoracoid with a notch at its ventromedial margin rather than a foramen, an iliac blade with a robust ridge at its anteromedial edge, a pubis with a puboischiadic fenestra and separate pubic foramen, and elongate limbs. Additional autapomorphic characters are displayed in the autopodium, which comprises about 40% of the entire limb length. These features include an enlarged, phalangiform distal carpal 1 and tarsal 1, a short and robust first metacarpal, a crescent‐shaped distal tarsal 4, and elongate penultimate phalangeal elements. The phylogenetic relationships of basal anomodonts are revisited using an expanded data set, with the addition of key taxa and several postcranial characters. Unlike dicynodonts, Suminia retained the plesiomorphic phalangeal formula for amniotes of 2‐3‐4‐5‐3 (manus) and 2‐3‐4‐5‐4 (pes). This pattern is achieved by the retention of disc‐like phalangeal elements between the proximal and penultimate phalanges in digits III, IV (manus and pes), and V (pes only). In light of the new material, Suminia can be recognized as the most complete basal anomodont, offering new insights into the early evolution of the group. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 162 , 661–698.     

Codifying Collegiality: Recent Developments in Data Sharing Policy in the Life Sciences

Over the last decade, there have been significant changes in data sharing policies and in the data sharing environment faced by life science researchers. Using data from a 2013 survey of over 1600 life science researchers, we analyze the effects of sharing policies of funding agencies and journals. We also examine the effects of new sharing infrastructure and tools (i.e., third party repositories and online supplements). We find that recently enacted data sharing policies and new sharing infrastructure and tools have had a sizable effect on encouraging data sharing. In particular, third party repositories and online supplements as well as data sharing requirements of funding agencies, particularly the NIH and the National Human Genome Research Institute, were perceived by scientists to have had a large effect on facilitating data sharing. In addition, we found a high degree of compliance with these new policies, although noncompliance resulted in few formal or informal sanctions. Despite the overall effectiveness of data sharing policies, some significant gaps remain: about one third of grant reviewers placed no weight on data sharing plans in their reviews, and a similar percentage ignored the requirements of material transfer agreements. These patterns suggest that although most of these new policies have been effective, there is still room for policy improvement.     

Exposure to a combination of heat and hyperoxia during cycling at submaximal intensity does not alter thermoregulatory responses

In this study, we tested the hypothesis that breathing hyperoxic air (F_inO₂ = 0.40) while exercising in a hot environment exerts negative effects on the total tissue level of haemoglobin concentration (tHb); core (T_core) and skin (T_skin) temperatures; muscle activity; heart rate; blood concentration of lactate; pH; partial pressure of oxygen (P_aO₂) and carbon dioxide; arterial oxygen saturation (S_aO₂); and perceptual responses. Ten well-trained male athletes cycled at submaximal intensity at 21°C or 33°C in randomized order: first for 20 min while breathing normal air (F_inO₂ = 0.21) and then 10 min with F_inO₂ = 0.40 (HOX). At both temperatures, S_aO₂ and P_aO₂, but not tHb, were increased by HOX. Tskin and perception of exertion and thermal discomfort were higher at 33°C than 21°C (p < 0.01), but independent of F_inO₂. T_core and muscle activity were the same under all conditions (p > 0.07). Blood lactate and heart rate were higher at 33°C than 21°C. In conclusion, during 30 min of submaximal cycling at 21°C or 33°C, T_core, T_skin and T_body, tHb, muscle activity and ratings of perceived exertion and thermal discomfort were the same under normoxic and hyperoxic conditions. Accordingly, breathing hyperoxic air (F_inO₂ = 0.40) did not affect thermoregulation under these conditions.     

Rapid Method for Determining Serum Bactericidal Activity

To screen large numbers of sera, a method was devised which utilizes the Steers-Foltz replicator which is usually used to determine minimal inhibitory concentration for antibiotics. Each of the wells (9 by 15 mm) of the replicator is filled with 0.06 ml of serum, 0.02 ml of a 10(5) suspension of organisms, and 0.02 ml of diluent (tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane-hydrochloride buffer, pH 8.4). The mixtures are incubated for 3 h, and samples are taken at 0, 1, 2, and 3 h by stamping duplicate nutrient agar plates (approximately 0.04 ml from each well). Plates are incubated overnight, and bactericidal activity is estimated by visual inspection of bacterial growth at each site for each sampling time. Results obtained with 28 serum-organism pairs paralleled standard pipetting-pour plate methods. The replicator method for determining bactericidal activity allows for the testing of a large number of samples and requires negligible amounts of serum.     

Polymorphonuclear leukocyte migration through human amnion membrane

A new in vitro model has been developed for studying migration of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) through living native cellular and matrix barriers. Human amnion membrane consists of a single layer of epithelium bound to a continuous basement membrane interfacing an avascular collagenous stroma. Living amnion was placed in plastic chambers with separate compartments on each side of the membrane. PMN were introduced on the epithelial side of the amnion, and a Millipore filter (Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.) was placed against the stromal side. In response to N-formylmethionyl-leucyl- phenylanlanine (FMLP) chemoattractant, PMN penetrated the full thickness of the amnion and were collected and counted on the filter. The rate of PMN traversal of the amnion was dependent on the concentration of FMLP (optimal at 10(-8)M) as well as the slope of the FMLP gradient across the amnion. The route of PMN migration was studied by transmission electron microscopy. PMN first attached to the epithelial surface, then infiltrated between intercellular junctions. PMN migrated around or through tight junction and hemidesmosome attachments. The PMN then penetrated the basement membrane and migrated through the dense collagenous stroma. The present amnion migration system has characteristics of the in vivo inflammatory state not described in any previous method for monitoring PMN migration in vitro. Prior methods have not used native epithelium, whole basement membrane, or collagenous stroma. PMN penetration of these barriers occurs in the normal inflammatory response and probably involves biochemical mechanisms not required for simple migration through the pores of an artificial filter. The amnion system can be useful for future biochemical and morphological studies of PMN penetration of these barriers and possible repair processes that may follow.     

Isolation of Eikenella corrodens in a General Hospital

The carbon source markedly influenced the qualitative and quantitative composition of cellular hydrocarbons in Cladosporium resinae. Total lipid and hydrocarbon content was greater in cells grown on n-alkanes than in cells grown on glucose or glutamic acid. Glucose-grown cells contained a spectrum of aliphatic hydrocarbons from C(7) to C(36); pristane and n-hexadecane comprised 98% of the total. Cells grown on glutamic acid contained C(7) to C(23) hydrocarbons; n-tridecane, n-tetradecane, n-hexadecane, and pristane made up 74% of the total. n-Decane-grown cells yielded C(8) to C(32) compounds, and n-hexadecane (96%) was the major hydrocarbon. Cells grown on individual n-alkanes from C(11) to C(15) all contained C(11) to C(28) hydrocarbons, and cells grown on n-hexadecane contained C(11) to C(32) hydrocarbons. In n-undecane-grown cells, n-hexadecane and pristane made up 92% of the total, but in cells grown on C(12) to C(16)n-alkanes the major cellular hydrocarbon was the one on which the cells were grown. This suggests that cells cultured on n-alkanes of C(12) or longer accumulate n-alkanes prior to oxidizing them.