Workshop summary: Top concentration for in vitro mammalian cell genotoxicity assays; and report from working group on toxicity measures and top concentration for in vitro cytogenetics assays (chromosome aberrations and micronucleus)

The selection of maximum concentrations for in vitro mammalian cell genotoxicity assays was reviewed at the 5th International Workshop on Genotoxicity Testing (IWGT), 2009. Currently, the top concentration recommended when toxicity is not limiting is 10mM or 5mg/ml, whichever is lower. The discussion was whether to reduce the limit, and if so whether the 1mM limit proposed for human pharmaceuticals was appropriate for testing other chemicals. The consensus was that there was reason to consider reducing the 10mM limit, and many, but not all, attendees favored a reduction to 1mM. Several proposals are described here for the concentration limit. The in vitro cytogenetics expert working group also discussed appropriate measures and level of cytotoxicity. Data were reviewed from a multi-laboratory trial of the in vitro micronucleus (MN) assay with multiple cell types and several types of toxicity measurements. The group agreed on a preference for toxicity measures that take cell proliferation after the beginning of treatment into account (relative increase in cell counts, relative population doubling, cytokinesis block proliferation index or replicative index), and that this applies both to in vitro MN assays and to in vitro chromosome aberration assays. Since relative cell counts (RCC) underestimate toxicity, many group members favored making a recommendation against the use of RCC as a toxicity measure for concentration selection. All 14 chemicals assayed for MN induction in the multi-laboratory trial were detected without exceeding 50% toxicity by any measure, but some were positive only at concentrations with toxicity quite close to 50%. The expert working group agreed to accept the cytotoxicity range recommended by OECD guideline 487 (55±5% toxicity at the top concentration scored). This also reinforces the original intent of the guidance for the in vitro chromosome aberration assay, where ">50%" was intended to target the range close to 50% toxicity.     

Die flavonolglykoside von Equisetum silvaticum

Ten glycosides of kaempferol and quercetin, including the hitherto unknown kaempferol and quercetin 3-rutinoside-7-rhamnosides, have been isolated from Equisetum silvaticum L.     

Chlorophyll b reduction during senescence of barley seedlings

During senescence of flowering plants, only breakdown products derived from chlorophyll a were detected although  b disappears, too (Matile et al., 1996, Plant Physiol 112: 1403–1409). We investigated the possibility of chlorophyll b reduction during dark-induced senescence of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) leaves. Plastids isolated from senescing leaves were lysed and incubated with NADPH. We found 7¹-hydroxy-chlorophyll a, 7¹-hydroxy-chlorophyllide a, and, after incubation with Zn-pheophorbide b, also Zn-7¹-hydroxy-pheophorbide a, indicating activity of chlorophyll(ide) b reductase. The highest activity was found at day 2 of senescence when chlorophyll breakdown reached its highest rate. Chlorophyllase reached its highest activity under the same conditions only at days 4–6 of senescence. Based on the chlorophyll b reductase activity of plastids at day 2.5 of senescence (=100%), the bulk of activity (83%) was found in the thylakoids and only traces (5%) in the envelope fraction. Chlorophyll b reduction is considered to be an early and obligatory step of chlorophyll b breakdown. Received: 22 February 1999 / Accepted: 24 March 1999     

Genetic basis of enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR fingerprint pattern in Sinorhizobium meliloti and identification of S. meliloti employing PCR primers derived from an ERIC-PCR fragment

The enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR method was employed to generate genomic amplification products of Sinorhizobium meliloti strain 2011. Eleven distinctive PCR fragments obtained in PCR reactions by using the ERIC2 primer were cloned and their partial or complete nucleotide sequences established. DNA sequences that extended past the ERIC2 primer region were not conserved among the 11 PCR fragments and showed no sequence similarity to the enterobacterial ERIC consensus sequence. Thus, repetitive ERIC or ERIC-like sequences seem not to be an integral part of the S. meliloti genome. An amplification product of S. meliloti 2011 was identified which was present in S. meliloti strains but absent in other rhizobial species. Based on the nucleotide sequence information, a pair of PCR primers was designed and used for PCR amplification of sequences of S. meliloti laboratory strains 2011, L5–30, AK631 and 102F34. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the amplification products revealed a 100% DNA sequence conservation. Database searches showed that the DNA fragment putatively encodes the C-terminal part of a protein displaying similarity to 2-hydroxyacid dehydrogenases of various organisms. The newly designed PCR primers should be useful for the rapid identification of S. meliloti isolates. Received: 17 February 1999 / Accepted: 9 April 1999     

Biosynthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoates from low-rank coal liquefaction products by Pseudomonas oleovorans and Rhodococcus ruber

A screening identified several bacteria that were able to use chemically heterogeneous low-rank coal liquefaction products as complex carbon sources for growth. Pseudomonas oleovorans and Rhodococcus ruber accumulated polyhydroxyalkanoic acids (PHA) amounting to 2%–8% of the cell dry weight when the cells were cultivated on these liquefaction products in the absence of any other carbon source. R. ruber accumulated, in addition to PHA, small amounts of triacylglycerols. The accumulated PHA consisted of 3-hydroxyhexanoate, 3-hydroxydecanoate, and 3-hydroxydodecanoate (P. oleovorans) or 3-hydroxybutyric acid and 3-hydroxyvaleric acid (R. ruber). Low-rank coal liquefaction products obtained from Trichoderma atroviride were better substrates for P. oleovorans than chemically produced fulvic acids. Received: 13 May 1998 / Received revision: 11 August 1998 / Accepted: 12 August 1998     

Movement of voltage sensor S4 in domain 4 is tightly coupled to sodium channel fast inactivation and gating charge immobilization.

The highly charged transmembrane segments in each of the four homologous domains (S4D1-S4D4) represent the principal voltage sensors for sodium channel gating. Hitherto, the existence of a functional specialization of the four voltage sensors with regard to the control of the different gating modes, i.e., activation, deactivation, and inactivation, is problematic, most likely due to a functional coupling between the different domains. However, recent experimental data indicate that the voltage sensor in domain 4 (S4D4) plays a unique role in sodium channel fast inactivation. The correlation of fast inactivation and the movement of the S4D4 voltage sensor in rat brain IIA sodium channels was examined by site-directed mutagenesis of the central arginine residues to histidine and by analysis of both ionic and gating currents using a high expression system in Xenopus oocytes and an optimized two-electrode voltage clamp. Mutation R1635H shifts the steady state inactivation to more hyperpolarizing potentials and drastically increases the recovery time constant, thereby indicating a stabilized inactivated state. In contrast, R1638H shifts the steady state inactivation to more depolarizing potentials and strongly increases the inactivation time constant, thereby suggesting a preferred open state occupancy. The double mutant R1635/1638H shows intermediate effects on inactivation. In contrast, the activation kinetics are not significantly influenced by any of the mutations. Gating current immobilization is markedly decreased in R1635H and R1635/1638H but only moderately in R1638H. The time courses of recovery from inactivation and immobilization correlate well in wild-type and mutant channels, suggesting an intimate coupling of these two processes that is maintained in the mutations. These results demonstrate that S4D4 is one of the immobilized voltage sensors during the manifestation of the inactivated state. Moreover, the presented data strongly suggest that S4D4 is involved in the control of fast inactivation.     

Pinnately ramified ensiform leaves in the genus Marathrum, (Podostemaceae-Podostemoideae)

The paper deals with the complex leaves of three species of the aquatic genus Marathrum (M. minutiflorum, M. rubrum and M. schiedeanum). It is shown that they represent pinnately ramified ensiform leaves. The dissection of the leaves contributes to surface enlargement and thus to improvement of their hydrophylls function. The ensiform structure is confirmed by the transverse position of the sheathing lower leaf zone and the subsequent intercalary elongational growth proceeding in the median plane towards the abaxial side of the leaf (upper leaf zone). The petiole continues into the rachis-like central axis of the blade from which pinnate-like segments diverge at the adaxial and abaxial edge of the ensiform blade. The segments give rise to tufts of clavate enations that end in long filaments. The filigree pinnately segmented ensiform leaves of Marathrum are interpreted as a further development of the fan-shaped and irregularly lobate ensiform leaves occurring in Mourera and Apinagia. Pinnately ramified ensiform leaves obviously evolved in convergence to the common type of pinnate leaves found in angiosperms.     

Pathogenicity of entomopathogenic fungi on hibernating pupae of Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dimic 1986 (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae). Part 1: Pathogenicity against the naked pupa

Strains from Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, Lecanicillium muscarium, Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana were examined in standardized Biotest to control the horse-chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella) in her pupal stage in winter. The fungi were pathogenic against the hibernating pupae of Cameraria ohridella at dose of 1.9 x 10(7) conidia/ml. They were aggressive, led to infection, death and mouldiness of naked pupae. Even at low temperature of 5 degrees C and 12 degrees C. L. muscarium strain V24 showed the highest pathogenicity after 4 weeks against this host, close followed by P. fumosoroseus strain P6. M. anisopliae strain 72 and 8. bassiana strain B412 were also pathogen but after a long-time period. Experiments gave information for general susceptibility of naked pupae of C. ohridella under low temperatures against entomopathogenic fungi. In further examinations it has to be tested, whether fungi can infected, when the pupae stay in their natural surroundings, the pupal cell in the leaf.     

Expression level and agonist-binding affect the turnover, ubiquitination and complex formation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor beta

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily that modulate target gene expression in response to fatty acid ligands. Their regulation by post-translational modifications has been reported but is poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated whether ligand binding affects the turnover and ubiquitination of the PPARbeta subtype (also known as PPARdelta). Our data show that the ubiquitination and degradation of PPARbeta is not significantly influenced by the synthetic agonist GW501516 under conditions of moderate PPARbeta expression. By contrast, the overexpression of PPARbeta dramatically enhanced its degradation concomitant with its polyubiquitination and the formation of high molecular mass complexes containing multiple, presumably oligomerized PPARbeta molecules that lacked stoichiometical amounts of the obligatory PPARbeta dimerization partner, retinoid X receptor. The formation of these apparently aberrant complexes, as well as the ubiquitination and destabilization of PPARbeta, were strongly inhibited by GW501516. Our findings suggest that PPARbeta is subject to complex post-translational regulatory mechanisms that partly may serve to safeguard the cell against deregulated PPARbeta expression. Furthermore, our data have important implications regarding the widespread use of overexpression systems to evaluate the function and regulation of PPARs.     

Ein Beitrag zur Morphologie der labellaren Marginalborste der Fliegen Calliphora und Phormia

Zusammenfassung Die Marginalborste auf der Marginalleiste der Rüsselscheibe von Calliphora und Phormia ist bei adulten Tieren und reifen Puppen lichtmikroskopisch untersucht worden. Sie besteht aus einer zweilumigen Borste, unter der sich ein Sack mit Sinneszellen und akzessorischen Zellen befindet. Der Sack baut sich aus zwei Hüllen auf, deren innere aus bindegewebigem Perilemm gebildet wird. Distal grenzt das Perilemm an die Basalmembran, proximal zieht es von der Basis des Sackes aus als Nervenscheide in das Labellum, wo es sich mit den Nervenscheiden anderer Marginalborsten vereinigt und an der Basis des Labellums in die Nervenscheide des Labialnerven mündet. Die äußere Hülle des Sackes besteht aus granuliertem Septum, das distal 2–25 unterhalb der Basalmembran endet und proximal die Nervenscheide etwa bis zur Mitte des Labellums eng anliegend überzieht. Dort löst es sich von der Nervenscheide und zieht unter die Basalmembran, unter der es auch im Haustellum und Rostrum vorkommt. Die trichogene Zelle der Marginalborste verschließt den Sack in Höhe der Basalmembran wie ein zugespitzter Korken. Die Membran ihrer Zelle im intrakutikulären Bereich wird beschrieben. Ein Scolops zieht als Fortsetzung vom engen Lumen der Borste durch die trichogene Zelle hindurch in den Sack hinein, wo sein freies Ende distale Nervenfortsätze aufnimmt. Zur Anzahl und Art der Zellen im Sack wird Stellung genommen. Ein Netz aus Fibrillen unbekannter Art um den Kern der Sinneszellen und der Verlauf einer mechanorezeptorischen Faser werden beschrieben. In den Nervenscheiden kommen biund tripolare Zellen mit kurzen Fasern vor, die für Perilemmzellen gehalten werden. Nach Berechnungen über die Anzahl der Sinneszellen je Labellum und nach Querschnitten durch den Labialnerven in Höhe des Haustellums besteht eine Reduktion der afferenten Axone von etwa 1000 Sinneszellen zu rund 250, was einer Reduktion von vier Axonen zu einem einzigen entspricht.Herrn Prof. Dr. R. Stämpfli danke ich sehr für sein großes Interesse und seine Anregungen, Herrn Prof. Dr. B. Hassenstein (Direktor des Instituts für Zoologie der Universität Freiburg) für die kritische Durchsicht des Manuskripts.