Point mutagenesis in mouse reveals contrasting pathogenetic effects between MEN2B- and Hirschsprung disease-associated missense mutations of the RET gene

Missense mutations of the RET gene have been identified in both multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type 2A/B and Hirschsprung disease (HSCR: congenital absence of the enteric nervous system, ENS). Current consensus holds that MEN2A/B and HSCR are caused by activating and inactivating RET mutations, respectively. However, the biological significance of RET missense mutations in vivo has not been fully elucidated. In the present study, we introduced one MEN2B-associated (M918T) and two HSCR-associated (N394K and Y791F) RET missense mutations into the corresponding regions of the mouse Ret gene by genome editing (Ret^M919T, Ret^N396K and Ret^Y792F) and performed histological examinations of Ret-expressing tissues to understand the pathogenetic impact of each mutant in vivo. Ret^M919T/+ mice displayed MEN2B-related phenotypes, including C-cell hyperplasia and abnormal enlargement of the primary sympathetic ganglia. Similar sympathetic phenotype was observed in Ret^M919T/- mice, demonstrating a strong pathogenetic effect of the Ret M918T by a single-allele expression. In contrast, no abnormality was found in the ENS of mice harboring the Ret N394K or Y791F mutation. Most surprisingly, single-allele expression of RET N394K or Y791F was sufficient for normal ENS development, indicating that these RET mutants exert largely physiological function in vivo. This study reveals contrasting pathogenetic effects between MEN2B- and HSCR-associated RET missense mutations, and suggests that some of HSCR-associated RET missense mutations are by themselves neither inactivating nor pathogenetic and require involvement of other gene mutations for disease expressivity.     

Effects of providing pollen to Euseius sojaensis or Amblyseius eharai (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on populations of the pink citrus rust mite,Aculops pelekassi (Acari: Eriophyidae)

Applied Entomology and Zoology - The pink citrus rust mite, Aculops pelekassi (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae), is a serious pest and is widely distributed in most citrus-growing areas of the world....     

NDR2‐mediated Rabin8 phosphorylation is crucial for ciliogenesis by switching binding specificity from phosphatidylserine to Sec15

Primary cilia are antenna‐like sensory organelles protruding from the plasma membrane. Defects in ciliogenesis cause diverse genetic disorders. NDR2 was identified as the causal gene for a canine ciliopathy, early retinal degeneration, but its role in ciliogenesis remains unknown. Ciliary membranes are generated by transport and fusion of Golgi‐derived vesicles to the pericentrosome, a process requiring Rab11‐mediated recruitment of Rabin8, a GDP–GTP exchange factor (GEF) for Rab8, and subsequent Rab8 activation and Rabin8 binding to Sec15, a component of the exocyst that mediates vesicle tethering. This study shows that NDR2 phosphorylates Rabin8 at Ser‐272 and defects in this phosphorylation impair preciliary membrane assembly and ciliogenesis, resulting in accumulation of Rabin8‐/Rab11‐containing vesicles at the pericentrosome. Rabin8 binds to and colocalizes with GTP‐bound Rab11 and phosphatidylserine (PS) on pericentrosomal vesicles. The phospho‐mimetic S272E mutation of Rabin8 decreases affinity for PS but increases affinity for Sec15. These results suggest that NDR2‐mediated Rabin8 phosphorylation is crucial for ciliogenesis by triggering the switch in binding specificity of Rabin8 from PS to Sec15, thereby promoting local activation of Rab8 and ciliary membrane formation.     

Dimorphisms of the proteasome subunit beta type 8 gene (PSMB8) of ectothermic tetrapods originated in multiple independent evolutionary events

The proteasome subunit beta type 8 gene (PSMB8) encodes one of the beta subunits of the immunoproteasome responsible for the generation of peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex class I molecules. Dimorphic alleles of the PSMB8 gene, termed A and F types, based on the deduced 31st amino acid residue of the mature protein have been reported from various vertebrates. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the presence of dichotomous ancient lineages, one comprising the F-type PSMB8 of basal ray-finned fishes, and the other comprising the A-type PSMB8 of these animals and both the F- and A-type PSMB8 of Xenopus and acanthopterygians, indicating that evolutionary history of the PSMB8 dimorphism was not straightforward. We analyzed the PSMB8 gene of five reptile and one amphibian species and found both the A and F types from all six. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the PSMB8 F type was apparently regenerated from the PSMB8 A type at least five times independently during tetrapod evolution. Genomic typing of wild individuals of geckos and newts indicated that the frequencies of the A- and F-type alleles are not highly biased in these species. Phylogenetic analysis of each exon of the reptile PSMB8 gene suggested interallelic sequence homogenization as a possible evolutionary mechanism for the apparent recurrent regeneration of PSMB8 dimorphism in tetrapods. An extremely strong balancing selection acting on PSMB8 dimorphism was implicated in an unprecedented pattern of allele evolution.     

Transnitrosation of alicyclic N-nitrosamines containing a sulfur atom

Aromatic and aliphatic nitrosamines are known to transfer a nitrosonium ion to another amine. The transnitrosation of alicyclic N-nitroso compounds generates S-nitrosothiols, which are potential nitric oxide donors in vivo. In this study, certain alicyclic N-nitroso compounds based on non-mutagenic N-nitrosoproline or N-nitrosothioproline were synthesised, and the formation of S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) was quantified under acidic conditions. We then investigated the effect of a sulfur atom as the substituent and as a ring component on the GSNO formation. In the presence of thiourea under acidic conditions, GSNO was formed from N-nitrosoproline and glutathione, and an N-nitroso compound containing a sulfur atom and glutathione produced GSNO without thiourea. The quantity of GSNO derived from the reaction of the N-nitrosamines containing a sulfur atom and glutathione was higher than that from the N-nitrosoproline and glutathione plus thiourea. Among the analogues that contained a sulfur atom either in the ring or as a substituent, the thiazolidines produced a slightly higher quantity of GSNO than the analogue with a thioamide group. A compound containing sulfur atoms both in the ring and as a substituent exhibited the highest activity for GSNO formation among the alicyclic N-nitrosamines tested. The results indicate that the intramolecular sulfur atom plays an important role in the transnitrosation via alicyclic N-nitroso compounds to form GSNO.     

Photoreactivities of 5-Bromouracil-containing RNAs

5-Bromouracil (^BrU) was incorporated into three types of synthetic RNA and the products of the photoirradiated ^BrU-containing RNAs were investigated using HPLC and MS analysis. The photoirradiation of r(GCA^BrUGC)₂ and r(CGAA^BrUUGC)/r(GCAAUUCG) in A-form RNA produced the corresponding 2′-keto adenosine (^ketoA) product at the 5′-neighboring nucleotide, such as r(GC^ketoAUGC) and r(CGA^ketoAUUGC), respectively. The photoirradiation of r(CGCG^BrUGCG)/r(C^mGCAC^mGCG) in Z-form RNA produced the 2′-keto guanosine (^ketoG) product r(CGC^ketoGUGCG), whereas almost no products were observed from the photoirradiation of r(CGCG^BrUGCG)/r(C^mGCAC^mGCG) in A-form RNA. The present results indicate clearly that hydrogen (H) abstraction by the photochemically generated uracil-5-yl radical selectively occurs at the C2′ position to provide a 2′-keto RNA product.     

Reduced cell number in the hindgut epithelium disrupts hindgut left–right asymmetry in a mutant of pebble,encoding a RhoGEF,in Drosophila embryos

Animals often show left–right (LR) asymmetry in their body structures. In some vertebrates, the mechanisms underlying LR symmetry breaking and the subsequent signals responsible for LR asymmetric development are well understood. However, in invertebrates, the molecular bases of these processes are largely unknown. Therefore, we have been studying the genetic pathway of LR asymmetric development in Drosophila. The embryonic gut is the first organ that shows directional LR asymmetry during Drosophila development. We performed a genetic screen to identify mutations affecting LR asymmetric development of the embryonic gut. From this screen, we isolated pebble (pbl), which encodes a homolog of a mammalian RhoGEF, Ect2. The laterality of the hindgut was randomized in embryos homozygous for a null mutant of pbl. Pbl is a multi-functional protein required for cytokinesis and the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in Drosophila. Consistent with Pbl’s role in cytokinesis, we found reduced numbers of cells in the hindgut epithelium in pbl homozygous embryos. The specific expression of pbl in the hindgut epithelium, but not in other tissues, rescued the LR defects and reduced cell number in embryonic pbl homozygotes. Embryos homozygous for string (stg), a mutant that reduces cell number through a different mechanism, also showed LR defects of the hindgut. However, the reduction in cell number in the pbl mutants was not accompanied by defects in the specification of hindgut epithelial tissues or their integrity. Based on these results, we speculate that the reduction in cell number may be one reason for the LR asymmetry defect of the pbl hindgut, although we cannot exclude contributions from other functions of Pbl, including regulation of the actin cytoskeleton through its RhoGEF activity.     

Environmental DNA as a ‘Snapshot’ of Fish Distribution: A Case Study of Japanese Jack Mackerel in Maizuru Bay,Sea of Japan

Recent studies in streams and ponds have demonstrated that the distribution and biomass of aquatic organisms can be estimated by detection and quantification of environmental DNA (eDNA). In more open systems such as seas, it is not evident whether eDNA can represent the distribution and biomass of aquatic organisms because various environmental factors (e.g., water flow) are expected to affect eDNA distribution and concentration. To test the relationships between the distribution of fish and eDNA, we conducted a grid survey in Maizuru Bay, Sea of Japan, and sampled surface and bottom waters while monitoring biomass of the Japanese jack mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) using echo sounder technology. A linear model showed a high R² value (0.665) without outlier data points, and the association between estimated eDNA concentrations from the surface water samples and echo intensity was significantly positive, suggesting that the estimated spatial variation in eDNA concentration can reflect the local biomass of the jack mackerel. We also found that a best-fit model included echo intensity obtained within 10–150 m from water sampling sites, indicating that the estimated eDNA concentration most likely reflects fish biomass within 150 m in the bay. Although eDNA from a wholesale fish market partially affected eDNA concentration, we conclude that eDNA generally provides a ‘snapshot’ of fish distribution and biomass in a large area. Further studies in which dynamics of eDNA under field conditions (e.g., patterns of release, degradation, and diffusion of eDNA) are taken into account will provide a better estimate of fish distribution and biomass based on eDNA.