Formation of Virus Assembly Intermediate Complexes in the Cytoplasm by Wild-Type and Assembly-Defective Mutant Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and Their Association with Membranes

We have previously identified two distinct forms of putative viral assembly intermediate complexes, a detergent-resistant complex (DRC) and a detergent-sensitive complex (DSC), in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected CD4(+) T cells (Y. M. Lee and X. F. Yu, Virology 243:78-93, 1998). In the present study, the intracellular localization of these two viral assembly intermediate complexes was investigated by use of a newly developed method of subcellular fractionation. In wild-type HIV-1-infected H9 cells, the DRC fractionated with the soluble cytoplasmic fraction, whereas the DSC was associated with the membrane fraction. The DRC was also detected in the cytoplasmic fraction in H9 cells expressing HIV-1 Myr- mutant Gag. However, little of the unmyristylated Gag and Gag-Pol proteins was found in the membrane fraction. Furthermore, HIV-1 Gag proteins synthesized in vitro in a rabbit reticulocyte lysate system in the absence of exogenous lipid membrane were able to assemble into a viral Gag complex similar to that of the DRC identified in infected H9 cells. The density of the viral Gag complex was not altered by treatment with the nonionic detergent Triton X-100, suggesting a lack of association of this complex with endogenous lipid. Formation of the DRC was not significantly affected by mutations in assembly domains M and L of the Gag protein but was drastically inhibited by a mutation in the assembly I domain. Purified DRC could be disrupted by high-salt treatment, suggesting electrostatic interactions are important for stabilizing the DRC. The Gag precursor proteins in the DRC were more sensitive to trypsin digestion than those in the DSC. These findings suggest that HIV-1 Gag and Gag-Pol precursors assemble into DRC in the cytoplasm, a process which requires the protein-protein interaction domain (I) in NCp7; subsequently, the DRC is transported to the plasma membrane through a process mediated by the M domain of the matrix protein. It appears that during this process, a conformational change might occur in the DRC either before or after its association with the plasma membrane, and this change is followed by the detection of virus budding structure at the plasma membrane.     

Cloning and sequence analysis of two embryonic beta-like globin cDNAs (y and z) of hamster.

A cDNA library was prepared from poly(A) mRNA extracted from 9-day hamster-yolk-sac erythroid cells. Two clones containing inserts coding for embryonic beta-like z or y globin-chains were isolated. Their identity was confirmed by (a) translation of hybrid selected mRNAs and (b) nucleotide sequence analysis of the inserts and comparison to the embryonic beta-like globin genes of Balb/c mouse. Availability of sequences for embryonic and adult globin cDNAs will aid in investigations of the molecular mechanisms of the globin switch in hamster YSEC.     

Blocking of acidosis-mediated apoptosis by a reduction of lactate dehydrogenase activity through antisense mRNA expression.

Lactic acid produced from the cells is a potential cause of extra- and intracellular acidification. Due to scarce technical tools, lactic acid that leads to acidification could not be reduced and direct evidence of the relationship between metabolic lactate and apoptosis has not yet been elucidated. In this study, we designed a cellular pH regulation system in CHO cells by a reduction of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity through LDH antisense mRNA expression. This inhibited lactate production and, therefore, acidification of the cytosol. Under HCO3(-)-buffered growth conditions, both the parent CHO cells and the engineered CHO cells maintained their extracellular pH and intracellular pH fairly well. However, upon acidification of the cytosol, only the parent CHO cells underwent apoptosis under HCO3(-)-free conditions. In fact, we observed a number of apoptosis-related events only in control cells, including mitochondrial dysfunction, cytochrome c release, and an increase in caspase-3 enzymatic activity.     

Critical Evaluation of Branch Polarity and Apical Dominance as Dictators of Colony Astogeny in a Branching Coral

The high morphological resemblance between branching corals and trees, can lead to comparative studies on pattern formation traits, best exemplified in plants and in some cnidarians. Here, 81 branches of similar size of the hermatypic coral Stylophora pistillata were lopped of three different genets, their skeletons marked with alizarin red-S, and divided haphazardly into three morphometric treatment groups: (I) upright position; (II) horizontal position, intact tip; and (III) horizontal position, cut tip. After 1 y of in-situ growth, the 45 surviving ramets were brought to the laboratory, their tissues removed and their architectures analyzed by 22 morphological parameters (MPs). We found that within 1 y, isolated branches developed into small coral colonies by growing new branches from all branch termini, in all directions. No architectural dissimilarity was assigned among the three studied genets of treatment I colonies. However, a major architectural disparity between treatment I colonies and colonies of treatments II and III was documented as the development of mirror structures from both sides of treatments II and III settings as compared to tip-borne architectures in treatment I colonies. We did not observe apical dominance since fragments grew equally from all branch sides without documented dominant polarity along branch axis. In treatment II colonies, no MP for new branches originating either from tips or from branch bases differed significantly. In treatment III colonies, growth from the cut tip areas was significantly lower compared to the base, again, suggesting lack of apical dominance in this species. Changes in branch polarity revealed genet associated plasticity, which in one of the studied genets, led to enhanced growth. Different genets exhibited canalization flexibility of growth patterns towards either lateral growth, or branch axis extension (skeletal weight and not porosity was measured). This study revealed that colony astogeny in S. pistillata is a regulated process expressed through programmed events and not directly related to simple energy trade-off principles or to environmental conditions, and that branch polarity and apical dominance do not dictate colony astogeny. Therefore, plasticity and astogenic disparities encompass a diversity of genetic (fixed and flexible) induced responses.     

CD40 ligand-activated human monocytes amplify glomerular inflammatory responses through soluble and cell-to-cell contact-dependent mechanisms.

Monocytes/macrophages play a critical role in the initiation and progression of a variety of glomerulonephritides. We sought to define the interactions between physiologically activated human monocytes and glomerular mesangial cells (MC) by employing a cell culture system that permits the accurate assessment of the contribution of soluble factors and cell-to-cell contact. Human peripheral blood monocytes, primed with IFN-gamma and GM-CSF, were activated with CD40 ligand (CD40L) or TNF-alpha and cocultured with MC. CD40L-activated monocytes induced higher levels of IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and ICAM-1 synthesis by MC. Separation of CD40L-activated monocytes from MC by a porous membrane decreased the mesangial synthesis of IL-6 by 80% and ICAM-1 by 45%, but had no effect on MCP-1. Neutralizing Abs against the beta 2 integrins, LFA-1 and Mac-1, decreased IL-6 production by 40 and 50%, respectively. Ligation of mesangial surface ICAM-1 directly enhanced IL-6, but not MCP-1, production. Simultaneous neutralization of soluble TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta decreased MCP-1 production by 55% in membrane-separated cocultures of MC/CD40L-activated monocytes. Paraformaldehyde-fixed CD40L-activated monocytes (to preserve membrane integrity but prevent secretory activity), cocultured with MC at various ratios, induced IL-6, MCP-1, and ICAM-1 synthesis by MC. Plasma membrane preparations from activated monocytes also induced mesangial IL-6 and MCP-1 synthesis. The addition of plasma membrane enhanced TNF-alpha-induced mesangial IL-6 production by approximately 4-fold. Together, these data suggest that the CD40/CD40L is essential for optimal effector function of monocytes, that CD40L-activated monocytes stimulate MC through both soluble factors and cell-to-cell contact mediated pathways, and that both pathways are essential for maximum stimulation of MC.     

U-Shape Suppressive Effect of Phenol Red on the Epileptiform Burst Activity via Activation of Estrogen Receptors in Primary Hippocampal Culture

Phenol red is widely used in cell culture as a pH indicator. Recently, it also has been reported to have estrogen-like bioactivity and be capable of promoting cell proliferation in different cell lines. However, the effect of phenol red on primary neuronal culture has never been investigated. By using patch clamp technique, we demonstrated that hippocampal pyramidal neurons cultured in neurobasal medium containing no phenol red had large depolarization-associated epileptiform bursting activities, which were rarely seen in neurons cultured in phenol red-containing medium. Further experiment data indicate that the suppressive effect of the phenol red on the abnormal epileptiform burst neuronal activities was U-shape dose related, with the most effective concentration at 28 µM. In addition, this concentration related inhibitory effect of phenol red on the epileptiform neuronal discharges was mimicked by 17-β-estradiol, an estrogen receptor agonist, and inhibited by ICI-182,780, an estrogen receptor antagonist. Our results suggest that estrogen receptor activation by phenol red in the culture medium prevents formation of abnormal, epileptiform burst activity. These studies highlight the importance of phenol red as estrogen receptor stimulator and cautions of careful use of phenol red in cell culture media.