Expression of complement 3 and complement 5 in newt limb and lens regeneration

Some urodele amphibians possess the capacity to regenerate their body parts, including the limbs and the lens of the eye. The molecular pathway(s) involved in urodele regeneration are largely unknown. We have previously suggested that complement may participate in limb regeneration in axolotls. To further define its role in the regenerative process, we have examined the pattern of distribution and spatiotemporal expression of two key components, C3 and C5, during limb and lens regeneration in the newt Notophthalmus viridescens. First, we have cloned newt cDNAs encoding C3 and C5 and have generated Abs specifically recognizing these molecules. Using these newt-specific probes, we have found by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical analysis that these molecules are expressed during both limb and lens regeneration, but not in the normal limb and lens. The C3 and C5 proteins were expressed in a complementary fashion during limb regeneration, with C3 being expressed mainly in the blastema and C5 exclusively in the wound epithelium. Similarly, during the process of lens regeneration, C3 was detected in the iris and cornea, while C5 was present in the regenerating lens vesicle as well as the cornea. The distinct expression profile of complement proteins in regenerative tissues of the urodele lens and limb supports a nonimmunologic function of complement in tissue regeneration and constitutes the first systematic effort to dissect its involvement in regenerative processes of lower vertebrate species.     

Identification of Tau and MAP2 as novel substrates of Rho-kinase and myosin phosphatase

Rho-kinase and myosin phosphatase are implicated in the phosphorylation-state of myosin light chain downstream of Rho, which is thought to induce smooth muscle contraction and stress fibre formation in non-muscle cells. Here, we found that microtubule-associated proteins, Tau and MAP2, interacted with the myosin-binding subunit (MBS) of myosin phosphatase, and were the possible substrates of both Rho-kinase and myosin phosphatase. We determined the phosphorylation sites of Tau (Thr245, Thr377, Ser409) and MAP2 (Ser1796) by Rho-kinase. We also found that Rho-kinase phosphorylated Tau at Ser262 to some extent. Phosphorylation by Rho-kinase decreased the activity of Tau to promote microtubule assembly in vitro. Substitutions of Ala for Ser/Thr at the phosphorylation sites of Tau (Tau-AAA) did not affect the activity to promote microtubule assembly, while substitutions of Asp for Ser/Thr (Tau-DDD), which are expected to mimic the phosphorylation-state of Tau, slightly reduced the activity. When Tau, or mutated forms of Tau, were expressed in PC12 cells, followed by treatment with cytochalasin D, they promoted extension of the cell process in a cytochalasin-dependent manner. However, Tau-DDD showed the weaker activity in this capacity than wild-type Tau or Tau-AAA. These results suggest that the phosphorylation-state of these residues of Tau affects its activity both in vitro and in vivo. Thus, it is likely that the Rho-kinase/MBS pathway regulates not only the actin-myosin system but also microtubule dynamics.     

GIT1 mediates Src-dependent activation of phospholipase Cgamma by angiotensin II and epidermal growth factor

Critical events for vasoconstrictor and growth factor signal transduction include stimulation of phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma) and elevation of intracellular calcium. c-Src has been proposed as a common mediator for these signals activated by both G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and tyrosine kinase-coupled receptors (TKRs). Here we show that the GPCR kinase-interacting protein-1 (GIT1) is a substrate for c-Src that undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation in response to angiotensin II (AngII) and EGF in vascular smooth muscle and 293 cells. GIT1 associates with PLCgamma via the PLCgamma Src homology 2 and 3 domains constitutively, and the interaction is unaltered by AngII and EGF. GIT1 interaction with PLCgamma is required for PLCgamma activation based on inhibition of tyrosine phosphorylation and calcium mobilization after GIT1 knockdown with antisense GIT1 oligonucleotides. GIT1 interacts with PLCgamma via a novel Spa homology domain (SHD) and a coiled-coil domain. Deletion mutation analysis showed that GIT1(SHD) is required for AngII- and EGF-mediated PLCgamma activation (measured by phosphorylation of Tyr783 and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate formation). We propose that GIT1 is a novel regulator of PLCgamma function that mediates PLCgamma activation by c-Src and integrates signal transduction by GPCRs and TKRs.     

Cbl-mediated ubiquitinylation is required for lysosomal sorting of epidermal growth factor receptor but is dispensable for endocytosis

Ligand-induced down-regulation controls the signaling potency of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR/ErbB1). Overexpression studies have identified Cbl-mediated ubiquitinylation of EGFR as a mechanism of ligand-induced EGFR down-regulation. However, the role of endogenous Cbl in EGFR down-regulation and the precise step in the endocytic pathway regulated by Cbl remain unclear. Using Cbl-/- mouse embryonic fibroblast cell lines, we demonstrate that endogenous Cbl is essential for ligand-induced ubiquitinylation and efficient degradation of EGFR. Further analyses using Chinese hamster ovary cells with a temperature-sensitive defect in ubiquitinylation confirm a crucial role of the ubiquitin machinery in Cbl-mediated EGFR degradation. However, internalization into early endosomes did not require Cbl function or an intact ubiquitin pathway. Confocal immunolocalization studies indicated that Cbl-dependent ubiquitinylation plays a critical role at the early endosome to late endosome/lysosome sorting step of EGFR down-regulation. These findings establish Cbl as the major endogenous ubiquitin ligase responsible for EGFR degradation, and show that the critical role of Cbl-mediated ubiquitinylation is at the level of endosomal sorting, rather than at the level of internalization.     

cDNA microarray analysis of altered gene expression in Ara-C-treated leukemia cells

The acute lymphoblastic leukemia cell line CCRF-CEM is sensitive to Ara-C and undergoes apoptosis. In contrast, the chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) cell line K562 is highly resistant to Ara-C, which causes the cells to differentiate into erythrocytes before undergoing apoptosis. We used cDNA microarrays to monitor the alterations in gene expression in these two cell lines under conditions leading to apoptosis or differentiation. Ara-C-treated CCRF-CEM cells were characterized by a cluster of down-regulated chaperone genes, whereas Ara-C-treated K562 cells were characterized by a cluster of up-regulated hemoglobin genes. In K562 cells, Ara-C treatment induced significant down-regulation of the asparagine synthetase gene, which is involved in resistance to L-asparaginase. Sequential treatment with Ara-C and L-asparaginase had a synergistic effect on the inhibition of K562 cell growth, and combination therapy with these two anticancer agents may prove effective in the treatment of CML, which cannot be cured by either drug alone.