Exosomes Secreted by Apoptosis-Resistant Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) Blasts Harbor Regulatory Network Proteins Potentially Involved in Antagonism of Apoptosis

Expression of apoptosis-regulating proteins (B-cell CLL/lymphoma 2 - BCL-2, Myeloid Cell Leukemia 1 - MCL-1, BCL-2 like 1 - BCL-X and BCL-2-associated X protein - BAX) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) blasts at diagnosis is associated with disease-free survival. We previously found that the initially high apoptosis-resistance of AML cells decreased after therapy, while regaining high levels at relapse. Herein, we further explored this aspect of dynamic apoptosis regulation in AML. First, we showed that the intraindividual ex vivo apoptosis-related profiles of normal lymphocytes and AML blasts within the bone marrow of AML patients were highly correlated. The expression values of apoptosis-regulating proteins were far beyond healthy control lymphocytes, which implicates the influence of microenvironmental factors. Second, we demonstrated that apoptosis-resistant primary AML blasts, as opposed to apoptosis-sensitive cells, were able to up-regulate BCL-2 expression in sensitive AML blasts in contact cultures (p = 0.0067 and p = 1.0, respectively). Using secretome proteomics, we identified novel proteins possibly engaged in apoptosis regulation. Intriguingly, this analysis revealed that major functional protein clusters engaged in global gene regulation, including mRNA splicing, protein translation, and chromatin remodeling, were more abundant (p = 4.01E-06) in secretomes of apoptosis-resistant AML. These findings were confirmed by subsequent extracellular vesicle proteomics. Finally, confocal-microscopy-based colocalization studies show that splicing factors-containing vesicles secreted by high AAI cells are taken up by low AAI cells. The current results constitute the first comprehensive analysis of proteins released by apoptosis-resistant and sensitive primary AML cells. Together, the data point to vesicle-mediated release of global gene regulatory protein clusters as a plausible novel mechanism of induction of apoptosis resistance. Deciphering the modes of communication between apoptosis-resistant blasts may in perspective lead to the discovery of prognostic tools and development of novel therapeutic interventions, aimed at limiting or overcoming therapy resistance.Despite good remission rates observed in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients, the 5-year event-free survival rates reach only 35–40% in adults and 60–70% in children (1, 2). Apoptosis is one of the crucial mechanisms influencing survival of AML cells, and its deregulation can possibly lead to chemotherapy resistance and eventually relapse (3–5). The ability of cells to undergo apoptosis is largely defined by the relative expression of anti- (i.e. BCL-2, BCL-X long isoform - BCL-XL, or MCL-1) and proapoptotic (i.e. BAX, BH3 interacting domain death agonist - BID, caspases) proteins. Several studies have shown that the levels of BCL-2 and BCL-2/BAX ratio are a determinant of apoptosis-resistance in AML blasts and are associated with survival in AML patients (3, 6). We have previously demonstrated that the expression of several apoptosis-related proteins, such as BCL-2, BCL-XL, MCL-1, and BAX, can be reliably measured in AML samples by flow cytometry (6). These four quantitative parameters, which constitute an anti-apoptosis index (AAI)¹, have proven to be a reliable predictor of AML patients'' survival, with a high apoptosis-resistant profile (i.e. higher AAI) of diagnosis leukemic blasts being associated with shorter disease-free survival (7). Accordingly, AAI determined at the time of diagnosis also correlated with the frequency of minimal residual disease (MRD), which is a reflection of drug-resistant leukemic cells that have survived chemotherapy (7). MRD can be detected at a low frequency in bone marrow (BM) at the time of remission and is thought to contain the relapse-initiating cells (8–10). These observations imply that leukemic cells that harbor an apoptosis-resistant protein profile at diagnosis can better survive chemotherapy, thereby eventually causing a relapse. Consequently, we further hypothesized that the AAI of MRD cells would be either elevated or at least similar to the profile of leukemic cells at diagnosis. Surprisingly, in complete remission patients, the AAI decreased in the MRD situation compared with apoptosis-resistant profile as measured in leukemic blasts at diagnosis. The values of the AAI profile increased again at relapse, indicating apoptosis-resistance (11). Based on these unexpected findings, we hypothesized that expression of apoptosis-related proteins in AML blasts, and possibly also in bystander cells in the bone marrow, is regulated by extracellular factors present in the AML microenvironment.Tumor cell communication with its microenvironment is emerging as an important determinant playing multiple roles in cancer. In this respect, both soluble factors and extracellular vesicles (EVs), most notably exosomes, have been shown to influence cellular processes of malignant and normal cells in the tumor microenvironment (12–14). Apoptosis in the AML setting can be regulated by several cytokines as well as by EVs, which carry variable cargoes, including multiple proteins (15–18). In line with our hypothesis, apoptosis of BM cells was shown to be inhibited in the presence of secretome derived from AML blasts (19). These observations suggest that factors secreted by apoptosis-resistant leukemic blasts are likely to confer a drug resistance phenotype upon initially sensitive blasts. Therefore, the aim of our current study was to characterize the microenvironment produced by apoptosis-resistant AML blasts in terms of its capacity to influence apoptosis regulation in neighboring cells and protein content.     

CNS thermosensitivity and control of latent heat dissipation in the pigeon

Thermoregulatory responses to heat exposure were studied in 12 hand-reared, acclimated pigeons (Columbia livia). Measurements of body temperature (Tcl), brain temperature (Tbr), cutaneous water evaporation (CWE) and respiratory frequency (fr) were carried out in intact conscious heat exposed birds. In a second group of lightly restrained birds, fr and CWE were taken when temperatures of the trunk, brain and air (Ta) were independently changed. Increasing Tbr to 43.5–43.8°C induced a pronounced polypnea (deep and fast, (300 breaths min⁻¹) when Tcl regulated at 42.4°C. Moreover, when hyperthermia (Tcl = 43.0°C) was combined with increased Tbr (43.0–43.8°C) shallow and fast panting (>500 breaths min⁻¹) was evoked. CWE was probably elicited by inputs generated by the skin warm receptors as a result of increased Ta. Moreover it was demonstrated that warming the brain to 42.5°C elicits cutaneous water evaporation in birds exposed to 26°C. When a high Ta (60°C) is accompanied by a high relative humidity (17%), the combined effect generates inputs eliciting intensive panting. The integration of the present and earlier data allows us to generate a model demonstrating the distinguished significance of the trunk, skin and brain thermosensors in the regulation of both respiratory and cutaneous latent heat dissipation. The present model also emphasizes the fact that the highly thermosensitive pigeon brain responds in a similar pattern to that found in mammals     

Cell-free mercury volatilization activity from three marine caulobacter strains

Three mercury-resistant marine Caulobacter strains showed an inducible mercury volatilization activity. Cell-free mercury volatilization (mercuric reductase) from these three marine Caulobacter strains was characterized and compared with enzyme activities determined by plasmids of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The temperature sensitivity of the Caulobacter mercuric reductase was greater than that of mercuric reductase from other gram-negative sources. Cell-free enzyme activity required NADH or NADPH, with NADPH functioning much better at lower concentrations than NADH. The Km for the Caulobacter enzyme was 4 microM Hg2+. Ag+ was a competitive inhibitor of Caulobacter mercuric reductase (Ki = 0.2 microM Ag+), as with previously studied enzymes. Arsenite was a noncompetitive inhibitor of the Caulobacter enzyme with a Ki of 75 microM AsO2-.     

Effects of streptomycin on plastids in dividing Euglena

Summary The plastids of dividing Euglena cells growing in the light in the presence of streptomycin decreased in length after a lag period of seven generations. The typical structure of the chloroplast was lost after a similar lag period. This loss of structure did not follow a regular pattern. After 11 generations the plastids resembled normal proplastids of dark-grown cells. Initial chlorophyll loss of treated cells was slow, but after 3 generations the rate of loss was about 0.5/generation, indicating a cessation of synthesis and a dilution among the progeny.     

Transition from Anoxygenic to Oxygenic Photosynthesis in a Microcoleus chthonoplastes Cyanobacterial Mat

Benthic cyanobacterial mats with the filamentous Microcoleus chthonoplastes as the dominant phototroph grow in oxic hypersaline environments such as Solar Lake, Sinai. The cyanobacteria are in situ exposed to chemical variations between 200 μmol of sulfide liter⁻¹ at night and 1 atm pO₂ during the day. During experimental H₂S to O₂ transitions the microbial community was shown to shift from anoxygenic photosynthesis, with H₂S as the electron donor, to oxygenic photosynthesis. Microcoleus filaments could carry out both types of photosynthesis concurrently. Anoxygenic photosynthesis dominated at high sulfide levels, 500 μmol liter⁻¹, while the oxygenic reaction became dominant when the sulfide level was reduced below 100 to 300 μmol liter⁻¹ (25 to 75 μmol of H₂S liter⁻¹). An increasing inhibition of the oxygenic photosynthesis was observed upon transition to oxic conditions from increasing sulfide concentrations. Oxygen built up within the Microcoleus layer of the mat even under 5 mmol of sulfide liter⁻¹ (500 μmol of H₂S liter⁻¹) in the overlying water. The implications of such a localized O₂ production in a highly reducing environment are discussed in relation to the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis during the Proterozoic era.     

Interaction of MIF-I or alpha-MSH with D-amphetamine or chlorpromazine on thermoregulation and motor activity of rats maintained at different ambient temperatures

Administration of several doses of MIF-I or alpha-MSH did not modify colonic temperature or the level of motor activity of rats in ambient temperatures of 4 degree or 20 degrees C. However, the thermoregulatory but not motor effects of the interaction between MIF-I or alpha-MSH with d-amphetamine were dependent upon ambient temperature. At 4 degree C, 1.0 mg/kg of both peptides enhanced the d-amphetamine-induced hypothermia, but at 20 degrees C both peptides blocked the hyperthermic effects of d-amphetamine. The hypothermic effect of chlorpromazine (CPZ) at 4 degree C and 20 degrees C was blocked by 1.0 mg/kg MIF-I but not by 1.0 mg/kg alpha-MSH. No linear dose response relationships between various doses of MIF-I or alpha-MSH and thermal responses were found. Administration of melanin or the use of hypophysectomized rats did not alter the significant interactions observed after peripheral injections.     

Estimation of Low Numbers of Escherichia coli Bacteriophage by Use of the Most Probable Number Method

The estimation of low numbers of the Escherichia coli bacteriophage was made possible by use of the most probable number (MPN) method. This method is similar to the technique used for counting coliform bacteria. The statistical results were computed by referring to tables. The method makes it possible to record values as low as two particles per 100 ml of sample. The direct plate count and MPN method were found to be in good correlation for T2 bacteriophage and bulk T bacteriophage in samples obtained from a sewage treatment plant and from contaminated seawater.     

Serotonergic stimulation of pituitary-adrenocortical activity in rats: evidence for multiple sites of action

5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) elevated serum corticosterone concentrations when administered either intraperitoneally (i.p.) or intraventricularly. Inhibition of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase outside of the blood-brain barrier antagonized the corticosterone response, but only when the 5-HTP was given i.p. Stimulation of the pituitary-adrenocortical system by fenfluramine was not affected by 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine pretreatment, whereas the stimulation produced by quipazine administration was blocked by lesions of the basomedial hypothalamus. These results suggest that serotonergic drugs can act at multiple sites (i.e., both central and peripheral) to evoke a pituitary-adrenocortical response.     

Cell-free mercury volatilization activity from three marine caulobacter strains.

Three mercury-resistant marine Caulobacter strains showed an inducible mercury volatilization activity. Cell-free mercury volatilization (mercuric reductase) from these three marine Caulobacter strains was characterized and compared with enzyme activities determined by plasmids of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The temperature sensitivity of the Caulobacter mercuric reductase was greater than that of mercuric reductase from other gram-negative sources. Cell-free enzyme activity required NADH or NADPH, with NADPH functioning much better at lower concentrations than NADH. The Km for the Caulobacter enzyme was 4 microM Hg2+. Ag+ was a competitive inhibitor of Caulobacter mercuric reductase (Ki = 0.2 microM Ag+), as with previously studied enzymes. Arsenite was a noncompetitive inhibitor of the Caulobacter enzyme with a Ki of 75 microM AsO2-.