Uncovering the evolutionary origin of blue anthocyanins in cereal grains

Functional divergence after gene duplication plays a central role in plant evolution. Among cereals, only Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum aestivum (wheat) and Secale cereale (rye) accumulate delphinidin‐derived (blue) anthocyanins in the aleurone layer of grains, whereas Oryza sativa (rice), Zea mays (maize) and Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) do not. The underlying genetic basis for this natural occurrence remains elusive. Here, we mapped the barley Blx1 locus involved in blue aleurone to an approximately 1.13 Mb genetic interval on chromosome 4HL, thus identifying a trigenic cluster named MbHF35 (containing HvMYB4H, HvMYC4H and HvF35H). Sequence and expression data supported the role of these genes in conferring blue‐coloured (blue aleurone) grains. Synteny analyses across monocot species showed that MbHF35 has only evolved within distinct Triticeae lineages, as a result of dispersed gene duplication. Phylogeny analyses revealed a shared evolution pattern for MbHF35 in Triticeae, suggesting that these genes have co‐evolved together. We also identified a Pooideae‐specific flavonoid 3′,5′‐hydroxylase (F3′5′H) lineage, termed here Mo_F35H2, which has a higher amino acid similarity with eudicot F3′5′Hs, demonstrating a scenario of convergent evolution. Indeed, selection tests identified 13 amino acid residues in Mo_F35H2 that underwent positive selection, possibly driven by protein thermostablility selection. Furthermore, through the interrogation of barley germplasm there is evidence that HvMYB4H and HvMYC4H have undergone human selection. Collectively, our study favours blue aleurone as a recently evolved trait resulting from environmental adaptation. Our findings provide an evolutionary explanation for the absence of blue anthocyanins in other cereals and highlight the importance of gene functional divergence for plant diversity and environmental adaptation.     

The mechanism of Single strand binding protein–RecG binding: Implications for SSB interactome function

The Escherichia coli single‐strand DNA binding protein (SSB) is essential to viability where it functions to regulate SSB interactome function. Here it binds to single‐stranded DNA and to target proteins that comprise the interactome. The region of SSB that links these two essential protein functions is the intrinsically disordered linker. Key to linker function is the presence of three, conserved PXXP motifs that mediate binding to oligosaccharide‐oligonucleotide binding folds (OB‐fold) present in SSB and its interactome partners. Not surprisingly, partner OB‐fold deletions eliminate SSB binding. Furthermore, single point mutations in either the PXXP motifs or, in the RecG OB‐fold, obliterate SSB binding. The data also demonstrate that, and in contrast to the view currently held in the field, the C‐terminal acidic tip of SSB is not required for interactome partner binding. Instead, we propose the tip has two roles. First, and consistent with the proposal of Dixon, to regulate the structure of the C‐terminal domain in a biologically active conformation that prevents linkers from binding to SSB OB‐folds until this interaction is required. Second, as a secondary binding domain. Finally, as OB‐folds are present in SSB and many of its partners, we present the SSB interactome as the first family of OB‐fold genome guardians identified in prokaryotes.     

不同林型树倒林隙内微立地类型的土壤微团聚体组成及其分形特征

采用野外调查和室内分析相结合的方法,分析小兴安岭地区阔叶红松林和云冷杉红松林两种林型下树倒林隙内丘坑微立地类型(丘顶和坑底)土壤微团聚体组成及其分形特征。结果表明: 两种林型的土壤微团聚体0.25～2 mm和0.05～0.25 mm粒级含量较高,分别为25.7%～50.7%和27.0%～42.8%,<0.002 mm粒级含量最小,为4.4%～8.9%。在两种林型的树倒林隙内,坑底和丘顶的土壤容重较大,且丘顶土壤养分含量均高于坑底。阔叶红松林树倒林隙内丘顶和坑底的土壤养分含量均高于云冷杉红松林。<0.002 mm土壤微团聚体与土壤物理和化学性质均无相关性,0.25～2 mm和0.002～0.02 mm土壤微团聚体分别与土壤非毛管孔隙度、总孔隙度、通气度、有机质、全磷、全氮和有机碳之间呈极显著正相关和极显著负相关。整体来看,阔叶红松林的土壤分形维数(D)和土壤特征微团聚体组成比例(PCM)大于云冷杉红松林。两种林型下,丘顶和坑底的土壤特征微团聚体粒级比值(RMD)均增高。土壤D和PCM与各土壤理化性质均无显著相关性,土壤RMD与土壤毛管孔隙度、总孔隙度、土壤容重和通气度呈显著负相关。丘顶和坑底微立地的形成会导致土壤较大粒级微团聚体减少,土壤微团聚体稳定性降低,土壤D和PCM增加,RMD显著增加;土壤RMD可作为定量化描述不同林型下丘坑微立地内土壤理化性质的指标。     

An Efficient Plant Regeneration System of <i>Hydrangea bretschneideri</i> Dipp via Stem Segments as Explants

Hydrangea bretschneideri Dipp is a highly popular ornamental plant for garden decoration. Genetic engineering technology has been successfully used in many plant species, but it is limited in Hydrangea. Here we established an efficient regeneration system by using stem segments as explants for the first time. In our study, the plant growth regulators (PGRs) were evaluated at the different regeneration processes, including axillary shoots regeneration and root induction. We found that the optimal concentration for axillary buds’ induction was 2.0 mgL⁻¹ 6-BA and 0.5 mgL⁻¹ 1 IAA, its highest induction rate was 70%. Moreover, the highest axillary shoots proliferation coefficient was 10.7 on the Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with 2.0 mgL⁻¹ 6-benzyladenine (BA), 0.2 mgL⁻¹ indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), and 1.0 mgL⁻¹ gibberellin A3 (GA3). The highest frequency of root induction was 80.0 ± 0.06% by culturing the elongated shoots in 1/2 MS medium containing 0.1 mgL⁻¹ IBA. In summary, our study will provide an effective technology for large-scale propagation and important pathway for promoting the popularization and application of Hydrangea bretschneideri Dipp.