By-Products of Zea mays L.: A Promising Source of Medicinal Properties with Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activities: A Comprehensive Review

Zea mays (Z. mays) is one of the main cereal crops in the world, and it′s by-products have exhibited medicinal properties to explore. This article intends to review the chemical compositions and pharmacological activities of by-products of Z. mays (corn silks, roots, bract, stems, bran, and leaves) which support the therapeutic potential in the treatment of different diseases, with emphasis on the natural occurring compounds and detailed pharmacological developments. Based on this review, 231 natural compounds are presented. Among them, flavonoids, terpenes, phenylpropanoids, and alkaloids are the most frequently reported. The by-products of Z. mays possess diuretic effects, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, plant protection activity, and other activities. This article reviewed the phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Z. mays for comprehensive quality control and the safety and effectiveness to enhance future application.     

Solid-phase microextraction and cuticular hydrocarbon differences related to reproductive activity in juniper bark borer Semanotus bifasciatus Motschulsky

Cuticular hydrocarbons of Cerambycidae species can function as signals for sex recognition. Little is known about the copulatory signals of the juniper bark borer Semanotus bifasciatus, a major economic threat to Platycladus orientalis Franco in China. Here, we investigated the cuticular hydrocarbons of both sexes of S. bifasciatus to determine the chemically mediated mating signals using the solid-phase microextraction (SPME) technique with carbowax/divinylbenzene fibers (CAR/DVB) and then analyzed by coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A series of aliphatic saturated straight-chain n-alkanes (n-C₂₃ to n-C₂₈), internally branched monomethylalkanes at carbons 3, 11, or 13, and dimethylalkanes were identified, which showed no qualitative differences in either sex and were similar in the samples with SPME fiber extraction and those with hexane extraction. The bioassay showed that 11-methylpentacosane (11-MeC₂₅), 11-methylhexacosane (11-MeC₂₆), and 11-methylheptacosane (11-MeC₂₇) have sex-specific recognition functions that triggered more mating attempts at a female-specific ratio of 100:4:60 than at a male-specific ratio of 100:85:50. In addition, the female-specific ratio of 11-methylalkanes can elicit about 70% of male mating attempts within about 60 s, whereas live females elicit about 98% of male mating attempts within 25 s. The discrepancy in the initiation of mating attempts by synthetic mixtures and live females suggests that the methyl isomers 3-MeC₂₅, 3-MeC₂₇, and/or 11,15-diMeC₂₇ may also be involved in the mating behavior of S. bifasciatus. These results suggest that 11-MeC₂₅, 11-MeC₂₆, and 11-MeC₂₇ constitute the contact sex pheromone of S. bifasciatus, with the presence or absence of 11-MeC₂₆ in particular playing an important role in mate recognition by males.     

Low genetic diversity and population connectivity fuel vulnerability to climate change for the Tertiary relict pine Pinus bungeana

Endemic species are important components of regional biodiversity and hold the key to understanding local adaptation and evolutionary processes that shape species distributions. This study investigated the biogeographic history of a relict conifer Pinus bungeana Zucc. ex Endl. confined to central China. We examined genetic diversity in P. bungeana using genotyping-by-sequencing and chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA markers. We performed spatial and temporal inference of recent genetic and demographic changes, and dissected the impacts of geography and environmental gradients on population differentiation. We then projected P. bungeana's risk of decline under future climates. We found extremely low nucleotide diversity (average π 0.0014), and strong population structure (global F_ST 0.234) even at regional scales, reflecting long-term isolation in small populations. The species experienced severe bottlenecks in the early Pliocene and continued to decline in the Pleistocene in the western distribution, whereas the east expanded recently. Local adaptation played a small (8%) but significant role in population diversity. Low genetic diversity in fragmented populations makes the species highly vulnerable to climate change, particularly in marginal and relict populations. We suggest that conservation efforts should focus on enhancing gene pool and population growth through assisted migration within each genetic cluster to reduce the risk of further genetic drift and extinction.     

Systematics of Mukdenia and Oresitrophe (Saxifragaceae): Insights from genome skimming data

Oresitrophe and Mukdenia (Saxifragaceae) are epilithic sister genera used in traditional Chinese medicine. The taxonomy of Mukdenia, especially of M. acanthifolia, has been controversial. To address this, we produced plastid and mitochondrial data using genome skimming for Mukdenia acanthifolia and Mukdenia rossii, including three individuals of each species. We assembled complete plastomes, mitochondrial CDS and nuclear ribosomal ETS/ITS sequences using these data. Comparative analysis shows that the plastomes of Mukdenia and Oresitrophe are relatively conservative in terms of genome size, structure, gene content, RNA editing sites and codon usage. Five plastid regions that represent hotspots of change (trnH-psbA, psbC-trnS, trnM-atpE, petA-psbJ and ccsA-ndhD) are identified within Mukdenia, and six regions (trnH-psbA, petN-psbM, trnM-atpE, rps16-trnQ, ycf1 and ndhF) contain a higher number of species-specific parsimony-informative sites that may serve as potential DNA barcodes for species identification. To infer phylogenetic relationships between Mukdenia and Oresitrophe, we combined our data with published data based on three different datasets. The monophyly of each species (Oresitrophe rupifraga, M. acanthifolia and M. rossii) and the inferred topology ((M. rossii, M. acanthifolia), O. rupifraga) are well supported in trees reconstructed using the complete plastome sequences, but M. acanthifolia and M. rossii did not form a separate clade in the trees based on ETS + ITS data, while the mitochondrial CDS trees are not well-resolved. We found low recovery of genes in the Angiosperms353 target enrichment panel from our unenriched genome skimming data. Hybridization or incomplete lineage sorting may be the cause of discordance between trees reconstructed from organellar and nuclear data. Considering its morphological distinctiveness and our molecular phylogenetic results, we strongly recommend that M. acanthifolia be treated as a distinct species.     

Heat shock in mechanically wounded carrot root disks causes destabilization of stable secretory protein mRNA and dissociation of endoplasmic reticulum lamellae

In many organisms, the synthesis of heat shock proteins during heat shock is concomitant with the cessation of at least a portion of normal cellular protein synthesis. Heat shocked barley aleurone layers selectively stop the synthesis and secretion of secretory proteins. Exposure to 40°C causes a disruption of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lamellae, which we have hypothesized leads to the destabilization of otherwise stable mRNA previously associated with ER‐bound polyribosomes. We report here that this was also observed in wounded carrot ( Daucus carota L.) root parenchyma tissue which synthesizes and secretes cell wall proteins when mechanically wounded. Nondenaturing cationic polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of radiolabeled proteins indicated that heat shock caused the cessation of the synthesis and secretion of extensin, a hydroxyproline‐rich cell wall glycoprotein. Northern blot analyses indicated that the mRNA levels for both extensin and another cell wall protein (p33) were rapidly diminished during heat shock. Under nonheat shock conditions extensin mRNA had a half‐life of greater than 4 h, but this appeared to be reduced to less than 30 min during heat shock. There was also a concomitant dissociation of ER lamellae in wounded, heat shocked carrot root tissue, as observed by transmission electron microscopy. These observations indicate that this response may be universal among plant secretory tissues.     

First chemical synthesis of a scorpion alpha-toxin affecting sodium channels: the Aah I toxin of Androctonus australis hector.

Aah I is a 63-residue alpha-toxin isolated from the venom of the Buthidae scorpion Androctonus australis hector, which is considered to be the most dangerous species. We report here the first chemical synthesis of Aah I by the solid-phase method, using a Fmoc strategy. The synthetic toxin I (sAah I) was renatured in DMSO-Tris buffer, purified and subjected to thorough analysis and comparison with the natural toxin. The sAah I showed physico-chemical (CD spectrum, molecular mass, HPLC elution), biochemical (amino-acid composition, sequence), immunochemical and pharmacological properties similar to those of the natural toxin. The synthetic toxin was recognized by a conformation-dependent monoclonal anti-Aah I antibody, with an IC50 value close to that for the natural toxin. Following intracerebroventricular injection, the synthetic and the natural toxins were similarly lethal to mice. In voltage-clamp experiments, Na(v) 1.2 sodium channel inactivation was inhibited by the application of sAah I or of the natural toxin in a similar way. This work describes a simple protocol for the chemical synthesis of a scorpion alpha-toxin, making it possible to produce structural analogues in time.     

山茶属植物的进化与分布

山茶属Camellia植物在其进化过程中,以雄蕊不定数、在某些类群中存在心皮离生至合生的中间过渡,认为是山茶科中较原始的一属,分布于亚洲东部和东南部,中国长江以南广袤的亚热带地区是该属的现代分布中心,中南半岛和我国云南、广西南部的热带地区种类虽少,却集中了本属原始或较原始的类群和种类。本属演化上的近缘属或姐妹群——核果茶属Pyrenaria（包括石笔术属Tutcheria）分布区大致与本属相似,其原始（子房5室,心皮先端多少分离,花柱离生）的种类也分布于此,它们可能同出于一个心皮离生的古老祖先,即生长于亚洲古热带森林环境中的类似千五桠果属（Dillenia）的原始山茶科植物,上述地区是该属的早期分化中心和起源地,大约在白垩纪特提斯海（古地中海）东岸的劳亚古陆和冈瓦纳古陆接触地带由原始五桠果类植物演化而来。山茶属植物自热带亚洲起源和分化发生后,向四周辐射状扩展,在亚洲大陆,类群和种类明显表现出由南向北、从热带向亚热带分化和替代的规律。在漫长的进化过程中,经历第三纪以来地史和古气候的变迁,分化发展为具花梗和花梗强烈缩短变无便的两个演化枝,分道扬镳平行发展,两枝在演化上相似地表现出雌、雄蕊数目的减少及合生水平的提高,本属最进化的类群是分布区南界的管蕊茶组 Sect．Calpandria和广布我国亚热带林下的连蕊茶组Sect．Theopsis,前一组花丝全部合生成肉质管,后一组雌、雄蕊高度合生,果通常1室发育,中轴退化。晚第三纪以来,古气候的变迂和亚洲山体的隆升,山茶组 Sect.Camellia,油茶组Sect．Paracamellia以及连蕊茶组 Sect．Theopsis在新的环境中产生进一步分化和自然杂交,出现了一些多倍体种群,细胞地理学研究表明,自中南半岛向北呈现出核型由对称到极不对称、染色体从二倍体到多倍体的变异系列,从而对山茶属中演化与分布的一致性提供了证据。