Protein metabolism in the mouse during pregnancy and lactation.

Protein synthesis was measured in vivo in the whole body and in a number of individual tissues in mice at various stages of pregnancy and lactation. The absolute rate of protein synthesis in the whole body increased from 640 mg/day in virgin mice to 1590 mg/day by day 18 of pregnancy, and to 2100 mg/day by day 15 of lactation. Large proportions of these increments were contributed by the rapidly growing foetuses and placentae in the pregnant animals and by protein synthesis in the mammary glands during lactation. In addition, a substantial stimulation of growth and protein synthesis was also observed in the liver and the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrocnemius muscle showed no changes in protein metabolism, indicating that in the well-fed mouse this tissue is not required to play a role as a protein reserve during pregnancy and lactation.     

Type VI collagen of the intervertebral disc. Biochemical and electron-microscopic characterization of the native protein.

The collagen framework of the intervertebral disc contains two major fibril-forming collagens, types I and II. Smaller amounts of other types of collagen are also present. On examination of the nature and distribution of these minor collagens within bovine disc tissue, type VI collagen was found to be unusually abundant. It accounted for about 20% of the total collagen in calf nucleus pulposus, and about 5% in the annulus fibrosus. It was discovered by serially digesting disc tissue with chondroitin ABC lyase and Streptomyces hyaluronidase that native covalent polymers of type VI collagen could be extracted. Electron micrographs of this material prepared by rotary shadowing revealed the characteristic dimensions of tetramers and double tetramers of type VI molecules, with their central rods and terminal globular domains. Molecular-sieve column chromatography on agarose under non-reducing non-denaturing conditions gave a series of protein peaks with molecular sizes equivalent to the tetramer, double tetramer and higher multimers. On SDS/polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis after disulphide cleavage, these fractions of type VI collagen all showed a main band at Mr 140,000 and four lesser bands between Mr 180,000 and 240,000. On electrophoresis without disulphide cleavage in agarose/2.4% polyacrylamide only dimeric (six chains) and tetrameric (12 chains) forms of type VI molecules were present. The ability to extract all the type VI collagen of the tissue in 4 M-guanidinium chloride, and absence of aldehyde-mediated cross-linking residues on direct analysis, showed that, in contrast with most matrix collagens, type VI collagen does not function as a covalently cross-linked structural polymer.     

beta-lactamase I from Bacillus cereus. Structure and site-directed mutagenesis.

The kinetic model of Ragan & Cottingham [(1985) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 811, 13-31] for electron transport through a mobile pool of quinone predicts that, under certain conditions, the normal linear dependence of electron flow on the degree of reduction (or oxidation) of the quinone should no longer be found. These conditions can be met by reconstituted NADH: cytochrome c reductase (Complex I-III from bovine heart) when electron flow is rate-limited by a low concentration of cytochrome c. We show that, in such a system, the dependence of activity (varied by inhibition with rotenone) on the steady-state level of quinone reduction is indeed non-linear and very closely accounted for by the theory.     

Fatty acid oxidation in bone tissue and bone cells in culture. Characterization and hormonal influences.

Fatty acid oxidation and its hormonal modulation were investigated in cultured rat calvaria and in cultivated cell populations. The latter were obtained from calvaria of newborn rats by sequential time-dependent digestion with collagenase, yielding eight cell populations: the early ones containing mainly fibroblasts, the middle ones being osteoblast-like, and late ones osteoblast-osteocyte-like. In calvaria, fatty acid oxidation was increased by adding 0.1 mM- and 1.0 mM-palmitate to the medium, containing 10% (v/v) fetal-calf serum. No effect was found after parathyrin addition in vitro or when injected in vivo. All cell populations obtained by sequential digestion were found to oxidize palmitate, whereby the osteoblast-like cells showed a lower oxidation rate than the other populations. Both parathyrin and calcitonin had no effect on fatty acid oxidation. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol at 1-100 nM and 24,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol at 100 nM increased oxidation primarily in the population enriched with osteoblast-like cells. Insulin at 1.6 microM diminished it in the cell populations enriched with osteoblast-like cells and in the late bone-cell fraction. However, glucagon had no effect. The energy provided by fatty acid oxidation in this system is approx. 40-80% of glucose metabolism, suggesting that this event may be of importance in the energy metabolism of bone.     

Chemical modification studies on a lectin from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker''s yeast).

The effect of chemical modification on a galactose-specific lectin isolated from a fatty acid auxotroph of Saccharomyces cerevisiae was investigated in order to identify the type of amino acids involved in its agglutinating activity. Modification of 50 free amino groups with succinic anhydride or citraconic anhydride led to an almost complete loss of activity. This could not be protected by the inhibitory sugar methyl alpha-D-galactopyranoside. Treatment with N-bromosuccinimide and N-acetylimidazole, for the modification of tryptophan and tyrosine residues, did not affect lectin activity. Modification of carboxy groups with glycine ethyl ester greatly affected lectin activity, although sugars afford partial protection. Modification of four thiol groups with N-ethylmaleimide was accompanied by a loss of 85% of the agglutinating activity, and two thiol groups were found to be present at the sugar-binding site of the lectin. Modification of 18 arginine residues with cyclohexane-1,2-dione and 26 histidine residues with ethoxyformic anhydride led to a loss of lectin activity. However, in these cases, modification was not protected by the abovementioned inhibitory sugar, suggesting the absence of these groups at the sugar-binding site. In all the cases, immunodiffusion studies with modified lectin showed no gross structural changes which could disrupt antigenic sites of the lectin.     

Degradation of heparin proteoglycan in cultured mouse mastocytoma cells.

Pulse-labelling of mouse mastocytoma cell cultures, established from ascites fluid, with inorganic [35S]sulphate for 1 h yielded labelled heparin proteoglycan containing polysaccharide chains of Mr 60,000-100,000. After chase incubation for 24 h most of the 35S appeared in intracellular polysaccharide fragments similar in size to commercially available heparin, Mr 5000-25,000, as indicated by gel chromatography. Products isolated from cultures after 6 h of chase incubation consisted of partially degraded free polysaccharide chains and, in addition, residual proteoglycans that were of smaller size than the proteoglycans initially pulse-labelled. The polysaccharide chains released by alkali treatment from the residual chase-incubated proteoglycans were of the same size as the chains derived from proteoglycans after 1 h of pulse labelling. These results suggest that the intracellular degradation of heparin proteoglycan to polysaccharide fragments is initiated by release of intact polysaccharide chains, probably by action of a peptidase, and is pursued through cleavage of these chains by an endoglycosidase. An endoglucuronidase with stringent substrate specificity [Thunberg, Bäckström, Wasteson, Ogren & Lindahl (1982) J. Biol. Chem. 257, 10278-10282] has previously been implicated in the latter step. Cultures of more purified mastocytoma cells (essentially devoid of macrophages) did not metabolize [35S]heparin proteoglycan to polysaccharide fragments, but instead accumulated free intact polysaccharide chains, i.e. the postulated intermediate of the complete degradation pathway. When such purified cells were co-cultured with adherent mouse peritoneal cells, presumably macrophages, formation of polysaccharide fragments was observed. It is tentatively proposed that the expression of endoglucuronidase activity by the mast cells depends on collaboration between these cells and macrophages.     

Regulation of ciliary adenylate cyclase by Ca2+ in Paramecium.

In the ciliated protozoan Paramecium, Ca2+ and cyclic nucleotides are believed to act as second messengers in the regulation of the ciliary beat. Ciliary adenylate cyclase was activated 20-30-fold (half-maximal at 0.8 microM) and inhibited by higher concentrations (10-20 microM) of free Ca2+ ion. Ca2+ activation was the result of an increase in Vmax., not a change in Km for ATP. The activation by Ca2+ was seen only with Mg2+ATP as substrate; with Mn2+ATP the basal adenylate cyclase activity was 10-20-fold above that with Mg2+ATP, and there was no further activation by Ca2+. The stimulation by Ca2+ of the enzyme in cilia and ciliary membranes was blocked by the calmodulin antagonists calmidazolium (half-inhibition at 5 microM), trifluoperazine (70 microM) and W-7 (50-100 microM). When ciliary membranes (which contained most of the ciliary adenylate cyclase) were prepared in the presence of Ca2+, their adenylate cyclase was insensitive to Ca2+ in the assay. However, the inclusion of EGTA in buffers used for fractionation of cilia resulted in full retention of Ca2+-sensitivity by the ciliary membrane adenylate cyclase. The membrane-active agent saponin specifically suppressed the Ca2+-dependent adenylate cyclase without inhibiting basal activity with Mg2+ATP or Mn2+ATP. The ciliary adenylate cyclase was shown to be distinct from the Ca2+-dependent guanylate cyclase; the two activities had different kinetic parameters and different responses to added calmodulin and calmodulin antagonists. Our results suggest that Ca2+ influx through the voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels in the ciliary membrane may influence intraciliary cyclic AMP concentrations by regulating adenylate cyclase.     

Identification and characterization of a Ca2+-calmodulin-sensitive cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase in a human lymphoblastoid cell line.

This study examines the pattern and regulatory properties of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases in a human lymphoblastoid B-cell line (RPMI 8392) established from a patient with acute lymphocytic leukaemia. In this cell line, phosphodiesterase activity measured at 0.25 microM-cyclic AMP is approx. 7-fold greater than that in isolated human peripheral-blood lymphocytes, and 16% of the phosphodiesterase activity in RPMI 8392 cells is associated with particulate fractions. Phosphodiesterase activity in crude fractions of this cell line is reproducibly stimulated by about 60-80% by Ca2+-calmodulin. In the presence of 20 nM-calmodulin, half-maximal stimulation occurs at 0.7 microM-Ca2+. The cytosolic phosphodiesterase activity of RPMI 8392 cells is separated into two forms by DEAE-Sephacel chromatography. The first form is eluted at approx. 0.2 M-sodium acetate, catalyses the hydrolysis of both cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP, and is stimulated 3-fold by Ca2+-calmodulin. This form exhibits non-linear kinetics for cyclic AMP in the absence of calmodulin, with extrapolated Km values of 0.8 and 4 microM, and non-linear kinetics in the presence of calmodulin, with extrapolated Km values of 0.5 and 1 microM. The Vmax. values are increased approx. 3-fold by calmodulin. The second form is eluted at approx. 0.6 M-sodium acetate, is specific for cyclic AMP, and insensitive to stimulation by Ca2+-calmodulin. The Ca2+-calmodulin-sensitive phosphodiesterase from the DEAE-Sephacel column can be adsorbed to a calmodulin-Sepharose affinity column and eluted with EGTA. This enzymic activity can also be immunoprecipitated by a monoclonal antibody directed against a calmodulin-bovine heart phosphodiesterase complex. This study documents the existence of Ca2+-calmodulin-sensitive phosphodiesterase in a cultured lymphoblastoid cell line derived from a leukaemic patient.     

The sialic acid residue of exogenous GM1 ganglioside is recycled for biosynthesis of sialoglycoconjugates in rat liver.

In order to assess metabolic recycling of sialic acid, GM1 ganglioside [nomenclature of Svennerholm (1964) J. Lipid. Res. 5, 145-155; IUPAC-IUB Recommendations (1977) Lipids 12, 455-468], 14C-radiolabelled at the acetyl group of sialic acid, was intravenously injected into Wistar rats, and the presence of radioactive sialic acid in liver sialoglycolipids (gangliosides) and sialoglycoproteins was ascertained. A time-course study (20 min-72 h) showed that the radioactivity present in the liver distributed in the following fractions, with reciprocal proportion varying with time: the protein (glycoprotein) fraction, the ganglioside fraction and the diffusible fraction, which contained low-Mr compounds, including sialic acid. Ganglioside-linked radioactivity gradually decreased with time; protein-linked radioactivity appeared soon after injection (20 min), reached a maximum around 20 h, then slowly diminished; diffusible radioactivity provided a sharp peak at 4 h, then rapidly decreased till disappearing after 40 h. The behaviour of bound radioactivity in the individual liver gangliosides was as follows: (a) rapid diminution with time in GM1, although with a lower rate at the longer times after injection; (b) early appearance (20 min) with a peak at 1 h, followed by continuous diminution, in GM2; (c) early appearance (20 min), peak at 1 h, diminution till 4 h, followed by a plateau, in GM3; (d) appearance at 60 min, maximum around 40 h and slow diminution thereafter, in GD1a, GD1b and GT1b. A detailed study, accomplished at 40 h after injection, demonstrated that almost all radioactivity present in the protein fraction was released by mild acid treatment and recovered in purified sialic acid; most of radioactive glycoprotein-bound sialic acid was releasable by sialidase action. In addition, the radioactivity present in the different gangliosides was exclusively carried by sialic acid and present in both sialidase-resistant and sialidase-labile residues. Only in the case of GD1a was the specific radioactivity of sialidase-resistant sialic acid superior to that of sialidase-releasable sialic acid. The results obtained lead to the following conclusions: (a) radioactive GM3 and GM2 were produced by degradation of GM1 taken up; GM3 originated partly by a process of neosynthesis; (b) radioactive GM1 consisted in part of residual exogenous GM1 and in part of a neosynthetized product; (c) radioactive GD1a originated in part by direct sialylation of GM1 taken up and in part by a neosynthetic process; (d) radioactive GD1b and GT1b resulted only from neosynthesis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

The detection of substructures within proteoglycan molecules. Electron-microscopic immuno-localization with the use of Protein A-gold.

Proteoglycan monomers from pig laryngeal cartilage were examined by electron microscopy with benzyldimethylalkylammonium chloride as the spreading agent. The proteoglycans appeared as extended molecules with a beaded structure, representing the chondroitin sulphate chains collapsed around the protein core. Often a fine filamentous tail was present at one end. Substructures within proteoglycan molecules were localized by incubation with specific antibodies followed by Protein A-gold (diameter 4 nm). After the use of an anti-(binding region) serum the Protein A-gold (typically one to three particles) bound at the extreme end of the filamentous region. A small proportion of the labelled molecules (10-15%) showed the presence of gold particles at both ends. A monoclonal antibody specific for a keratan sulphate epitope (MZ15) localized a keratan sulphate-rich region at one end of the proteoglycan, but gold particles were not observed along the extended part of the protein core. This distribution was not changed by prior chondroitin AC lyase digestion of the proteoglycan. Localization with a different monoclonal antibody to keratan sulphate (5-D-4) caused a change in the spreading behaviour of a proportion (approx. 20%) of the proteoglycan monomers that lost their beaded structure and appeared with the chondroitin sulphate chains projecting from the protein core. In these molecules the Protein A-gold localized antibody (5-D-4) along the length of the protein core whereas in those molecules with a beaded appearance it labelled only at one end. Labelling with either of the monoclonal antibodies was specific, as it was inhibited by exogenously added keratan sulphate. The differential localization achieved may reflect structural differences within the proteoglycan population involving keratan sulphate and the protein core to which it is attached. The results showed that by this technique substructures within proteoglycan molecules can be identified by Protein A-gold labelling after the use of specific monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies.