Patagonian vegetation turnovers during the Paleogene-Early Neogene: Origin of arid-adapted floras

The structure of the living Patagonian flora, dominated by the steppe, is a direct consequence of past climatic and tectonic events. These arid-adapted communities were widespread during the Late Neogene, but their origin in Patagonia can be traced back to the Paleogene. Vegetational trends throughout Paleocene-Miocene time are based on available paleobotanical and palynological information. Four major supported stages in vegetation turnovers are recognized: (1) Paleocene and Early Eocene floras were rainforest-dominated, including many angiosperms with warm-temperate affinities (e.g., palms, Juglandaceae, Casuarinaceae). However, mainly in the Early Eocene, some geographic areas influenced by warm but drier conditions are suggested by the occurrence of certain taxa (e.g., Anacardiaceae). These areas containing arid-adapted floras would have arisen in Patagonian inland regions, in a generally wet continent. (2) The Middle Eocene-Early Oligocene interval was distinguished by the invasion ofNothofagus forests. Progressive replacements of megathermal communities by meso- and microthermal rainforest are documented.Nothofagus forest expansion suggests a marked cooling trend at this time, although some megathermal elements (AquifoliaceaeIlex, Tiliaceae-Bombacaceae, Sapindaceae) were still present at the beginning of this period. Arid-loving taxa have not been recorded in abundance. (3) Late Oligocene-Early Miocene floras were characterized by the occurrence of shrubby-herbaceous elements belonging to Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Ephedraceae, Convolvulaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae. They began to give a modern appearance to plant communities. Xerophytic formations would have occupied coastal salt marshes and pockets in inland areas. Megathermal angiosperms of the Rubiaceae, Combretaceae, Sapindaceae, Chloranthaceae, and Arecaceae occurred mainly during the Late Oligocene. Forests of Nothofagaceae, Podocarpaceae, and Araucariaceae are still documented in extra-Andean Patagonia; however, a contrast between coastal and inland environments may have developed, particularly in the Miocene. (4) Middle-Late Miocene records show an increasing diversity and abundance of xerophytic-adapted taxa, including Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, and ConvolvulaceaeCressa/Wilsonia. Expansion of these xerophytic taxa, coupled with extinctions of megathermal/nonseasonal elements, would have been associated with both tectonic and climatic forcing factors, led to the development of aridity and extreme seasonality. These arid-adapted Late Miocene floras are closely related to modern communities, with steppe widespread across extra-Andean Patagonia and forest restricted to the western humid upland regions.

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Resumen   Principales tendencias de la vegetación en Patagonia durante el Paleógeno-Neógeno temprano: origen de las floras adaptadas a condiciones de aridez. La estructura de la flora patagónica actual, dominada por la estepa, es consecuencia directa de los eventos tectónicos y climáticos a los que ha estado sometida. Estas comunidades, adaptadas a condiciones de extrema aridez, se expandieron durante el Neógeno tardío, aunque su origen en Pagatonia pudo haber ocurrido en el Paleógeno. En base a la información paleobotánica y palinolíogica disponible se sustentan las cuatro etapas principales de cambios en la vegetación a través del intervalo Paleoceno-Mioceno: 1-Paleoceno-Eoceno Temprano, con floras dominadas por selvas, incluyendo angiospermas con afinidades megatérmicas (ej. palmeras, Juglandaceae, Casuarinaceae). En el Eoceno Temprano, en algunas áreas geográficas habrían prevalecido condiciones cálidas pero áridas según surge de la presencia de taxones con estos requerimientos (ej. Anacardiaceae). Estos parches xerof íticos se habnían desarrollado en el interior de la Patagonia dentro de un entorno general húmedo. 2-Eoceno Medio-Oligoceno Temprano, caracterizado por la expansión de los bosques deNothofagus. Se documentó un progresivo reemplazo de comunidades megatérmicas por bosques meso y microtérmicos dominados porNothofagus y podocarpáceas, indicando un marcado enfriamiento. Al principio de este intervalo, sin embargo, todavía se reconocen algunos elementos megatérmicos (AquifoliaceaeIlex, Tiliaceae-Bombacaceae, Sapindaceae); los taxones xerofíticos, en cambio, son muy escasos. 3-Oligoceno Tardío-Mioceno Temprano, determinado por la presencia de elementos herbáceo-arbustivos de Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Ephedraceae, Convolvulaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, que empezaron a dar una apariencia moderna a las comunidades vegetales. Las formaciones xerofíticas habrían ocupado ambientes costeros como marismas o parches abiertos en áreas internas. Angiospermas megatérmicas como Rubiaceae, Combretaceae, Sapindaceae, Chloranthaceae y Arecacea están bien representadas, en particular en el Oligoceno Tardío. Los bosques de Nothofagaceae, Podocarpaceae y Araucariaceae todavía estarían presentes en la Patagonia extra-andina, pero ya existiría un marcado contraste entre los ambientes continentales y costeros. 4-Mioceno Medio-Tardío, definido por un marcado incremento en la diversidad y abundancia de taxones xerofítícos incluyendo Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae y ConvolvulaceaeCressa/Wilsonia. La expansión de estas formas y la extinción de elementos megatérmicos, no estacionales, habrían estado asociadas a factures tectónicos y climáticos que condujeron al desarrollo de aridez y extrema estacionalidad. Las floras áridas del Mioceno Tardío se encuentran estrechamente relacionadas con las comunidades modernas, con la estepa expandida en la Patagonia extra-andina y los bosques restringidos a la región húmeda, occidental, de los Andes.

     

Emerging role for Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3: Active infection in women with silent high-risk human papillomavirus and in women with idiopathic infertility

Recently, there are controversial opinions on the presence of Mycoplasmas/Ureaplasmas as colonizers or pathogens, and on the use of a targeted therapy. This study aimed to characterize Mycoplasmas/Ureaplasmas infections in reproductive age women, including the acquisition of sexually transmitted (ST) pathogens and poor birth outcomes. A total of 646 healthy Italian women fulfilled the inclusion criteria including 521 infertile women, 65 pregnant women, and 60 fertile women with identified risk factors and symptomatic for vaginitis/cervicitis. Multiplex and quantitative molecular techniques and direct automatic DNA sequencing were performed to assess the genome structure of Mycoplasma/Ureaplasma species and ST infected pathogens. Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3 represented the predominant colonizer of the urogenital tract of this series and the unique species significantly associated with ST pathogens coinfection (p < 0.01). U. parvum load >10⁴ bacteria/ml, suggestive of active infection, has been measured only in asymptomatic high-risk human papillomavirus infected women (24.3%) and in 40% of women with idiopathic infertility. To note, 16% of the follicular fluid from these idiopathic women resulted infected with U. parvum. In conclusion, the present study focused the attention on U. parvum serovar 3 as emerging microorganism in sexually active women that may have the benefit of targeted therapy.     

Wnt‐induced activation of glucose metabolism mediates the in vivo neuroprotective roles of Wnt signaling in Alzheimer disease

Dysregulated Wnt signaling is linked to major neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer disease (AD). In mouse models of AD, activation of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway improves learning/memory, but the mechanism for this remains unclear. The decline in brain function in AD patients correlates with reduced glucose utilization by neurons. Here, we test whether improvements in glucose metabolism mediate the neuroprotective effects of Wnt in AD mouse model. APPswe/PS1dE9 transgenic mice were used to model AD, Andrographolide or Lithium was used to activate Wnt signaling, and cytochalasin B was used to block glucose uptake. Cognitive function was assessed by novel object recognition and memory flexibility tests. Glucose uptake and the glycolytic rate were determined using radiotracer glucose. The activities of key enzymes of glycolysis such as hexokinase and phosphofructokinase, Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)/Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) levels and the pentose phosphate pathway and activity of glucose‐6 phosphate dehydrogenase were measured. Wnt activators significantly improved brain glucose utilization and cognitive performance in transgenic mice. Wnt signaling enhanced glucose metabolism by increasing the expression and/or activity of hexokinase, phosphofructokinase and AMP‐activated protein kinase. Inhibiting glucose uptake partially abolished the beneficial effects of Wnt signaling on learning/memory. Wnt activation also enhanced glucose metabolism in cortical and hippocampal neurons, as well as brain slices derived from APPswe/PS1E9 transgenic mice. Combined, these data provide evidence that the neuroprotective effects of Wnt signaling in AD mouse models result, at least in part, from Wnt‐mediated improvements in neuronal glucose metabolism.     

Progressive iron accumulation induces a biphasic change in the glutathione content of neuroblastoma cells

Glutathione (GSH) constitutes the single most important antioxidant in neurons, whereas iron causes oxidative stress that leads to cell damage and death. Although GSH and iron produce opposite effects on redox cell status, no mechanistic relationships between iron and GSH metabolism are known. In this work, we evaluated in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells the effects of iron accumulation on intracellular GSH metabolism. After 2 d exposure to increasing concentrations of iron, cells underwent concentration-dependent iron accumulation and a biphasic change in intracellular GSH levels. Increasing iron from 1 to 5 microM resulted in a marked increase in intracellular oxidative stress and increased GSH levels. Increased GSH levels were due to increased synthesis. Further increases in iron concentration led to significant reduction in both reduced (GSH) and total (GSH + (2 x GSSG)) glutathione. Cell exposure to high iron concentrations (20-80 microM) was associated with a marked decrease in the GSH/GSSG molar ratio and the GSH half-cell reduction potential. Moreover, increasing iron from 40 to 80 microM resulted in loss of cell viability. Iron loading did not change GSH reductase activity but induced significant increases in GSH peroxidase and GSH transferase activities. The changes in GSH homeostasis reported here recapitulate several of those observed in Parkinson's disease substantia nigra. These results support a model by which progressive iron accumulation leads to a progressive decrease in GSH content and cell reduction potential, which finally results in impaired cell integrity.     

Dietary calcium deficiency increases Ca2+ uptake and Ca2+ extrusion mechanisms in chick enterocytes

Ca2+ uptake and Ca2+ extrusion mechanisms were studied in enterocytes with different degree of differentiation from chicks adapted to a low Ca2+ diet as compared to animals fed a normal diet. Chicks adapted to a low Ca2+ diet presented hypocalcemia, hypophosphatemia and increased serum 1,25(OH)2D3 and Ca2+ absorption. Low Ca2+ diet increased the alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity, independently of the cellular maturation, but it did not alter gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase activity. Ca2+ uptake, Ca2+-ATPase and Na(+)/Ca2+ exchanger activities and expressions were increased by the mineral-deficient diet either in mature or immature enterocytes. Western blots analysis shows that vitamin D receptor (VDR) expression was much higher in crypt cells than in mature cells. Low Ca2+ diet decreased the number of vitamin D receptor units in both kinds of cells. In conclusion, changes in Ca2+ uptake and Ca2+ extrusion mechanisms in the enterocytes by a low Ca2+ diet appear to be a result of enhanced serum levels of 1,25(OH)2D3, which would promote cellular differentiation producing cells more efficient to express vitamin D dependent genes required for Ca2+ absorption.     

Structured HCV nucleocapsids composed of P21 core protein assemble primary in the nucleus of Pichia pastoris yeast

The relationship between HCV core protein (HCcAg) processing and the structural composition and morphogenesis of nucleocapsid-like particles (NLPs) produced in Pichia pastoris cells was studied. At early stages of heterologous expression, data suggest that HCcAg (in the P21 form) was transported soon after its synthesis in the cytoplasm into the nucleus. HCcAg assembly into nucleocapsid-like particles with 20-30 nm in diameter took place primary in the cell nucleus. However, at later stages, when P21 and P23 forms were co-detected, data suggest that new assembly of nucleocapsid particles containing P21 possibly occurs at ER membranes and in the cytoplasm. This is the first report showing that structured HCV NLPs composed of P21 core protein assemble primary in the nucleus of P. pastoris yeast.