Characterization of Vibrio cholerae O1 isolates responsible for cholera outbreaks in Kenya between 1975 and 2017

Kenya is endemic for cholera with different waves of outbreaks having been documented since 1971. In recent years, new variants of Vibrio cholerae O1 have emerged and have replaced most of the traditional El Tor biotype globally. These strains also appear to have increased virulence, and it is important to describe and document their phenotypic and genotypic traits. This study characterized 146 V. cholerae O1 isolates from cholera outbreaks that occurred in Kenya between 1975 and 2017. Our study reports that the 1975–1984 strains had typical classical or El Tor biotype characters. New variants of V. cholerae O1 having traits of both classical and El Tor biotypes were observed from 2007 with all strains isolated between 2015 and 2017 being sensitive to polymyxin B and carrying both classical and El Tor type ctxB. All strains were resistant to Phage IV and harbored rstR, rtxC, hlyA, rtxA and tcpA genes specific for El Tor biotype indicating that the strains had an El Tor backbone. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) genotyping differentiated the isolates into 14 pulsotypes. The clustering also corresponded with the year of isolation signifying that the cholera outbreaks occurred as separate waves of different genetic fingerprints exhibiting different genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. The emergence and prevalence of V. cholerae O1 strains carrying El Tor type and classical type ctxB in Kenya are reported. These strains have replaced the typical El Tor biotype in Kenya and are potentially more virulent and easily transmitted within the population.     

Ribosomal subunits and ribosomal proteins of Tetrahymena thermophila. Effect of the presence of iodoacetamide during ribosome extraction on the properties of the subunits

Proteolytic degradation of ribosomal proteins occurs during the preparation of subunits of the cytoplasmic ribosomes of the protozoa Tetrahymena thermophila and the isolated subunits are inactive. Addition of 5 mM iodoacetamide to cell suspensions before extraction inhibits proteolytic activity and permits isolation of active subunits. The protein complements of these subunits have been characterized in two different two-dimensional electrophoretic systems, and their molecular weights have been determined.     

Impaired beta-cell regeneration in perinatally malnourished rats: a study with STZ.

We investigated the mechanisms implicated in beta-cell mass reduction observed during late fetal and early postnatal malnutrition in the rat. Beta-cell regeneration, including proliferation and neogenesis, was studied after neonatal beta-cell destruction by streptozotocin (STZ). STZ was injected at birth and maternal food restriction was continued until weaning. Beta-cell mass, proliferation, and islet number were quantified by morphometrical measurements on pancreatic sections in STZ-injected normal (C-STZ) and malnourished (R-STZ) rats, with noninjected C and R rats as controls. At day 4, only 20% of the beta cell-mass remained in C-STZ rats. It regenerated to 50% that of noninjected controls, mainly through active neogenesis, as shown by the entire recovery of islet number/cm(2), and also through moderately increased beta-cell proliferation. In contrast, beta-cell mass from R-STZ animals poorly regenerated, despite a dramatic increase of beta-cell proliferation, because islet number/cm(2) recovered insufficiently. In conclusion, perinatal malnutrition impairs neogenesis and the capacity of beta-cell regeneration by neogenesis but preserves beta-cell proliferation, which remains the elective choice to increase beta-cell mass. These results provide an explanation for the impaired capacity of malnourished animals to adapt their beta-cell mass during aging or pregnancy, which aggravate glucose tolerance.     

Fine Mapping the Spatial Distribution and Concentration of Unlabeled Drugs within Tissue Micro-Compartments Using Imaging Mass Spectrometry

Readouts that define the physiological distributions of drugs in tissues are an unmet challenge and at best imprecise, but are needed in order to understand both the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties associated with efficacy. Here we demonstrate that it is feasible to follow the in vivo transport of unlabeled drugs within specific organ and tissue compartments on a platform that applies MALDI imaging mass spectrometry to tissue sections characterized with high definition histology. We have tracked and quantified the distribution of an inhaled reference compound, tiotropium, within the lungs of dosed rats, using systematic point by point MS and MS/MS sampling at 200 µm intervals. By comparing drug ion distribution patterns in adjacent tissue sections, we observed that within 15 min following exposure, tiotropium parent MS ions (mass-to-charge; m/z 392.1) and fragmented daughter MS/MS ions (m/z 170.1 and 152.1) were dispersed in a concentration gradient (80 fmol-5 pmol) away from the central airways into the lung parenchyma and pleura. These drug levels agreed well with amounts detected in lung compartments by chemical extraction. Moreover, the simultaneous global definition of molecular ion signatures localized within 2-D tissue space provides accurate assignment of ion identities within histological landmarks, providing context to dynamic biological processes occurring at sites of drug presence. Our results highlight an important emerging technology allowing specific high resolution identification of unlabeled drugs at sites of in vivo uptake and retention.     

Endorphin mediated increase in pain threshold induced by long-lasting exercise in rats

Rats were trained to run spontaneously, without stress, in running wheels. The running activity increased gradually and could reach a plateau of 7 km/night after 3–4 weeks. During the first hour of running in the dark phase the squeak threshold increased significantly and remained high in the morning. The degree of increased threshold was correlated to the amount of running activity. The squeak threshold declined during the following 6 hours of inactivity. A rapid decrease in threshold occurred after naloxone (1–2 mg/kg i.p.). It is suggested that long-lasting muscle exercise (e.g. jogging), acupuncture, and low frequency electrical stimulation of afferent nerve fibres produce discharges in muscle afferents which influence central endorphin mechanics giving analgetic effects.     

The generation and subsequent fate of glutathionyl radicals in biological systems

Horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of p-phenetidine in the presence of either glutathione (GSH), cysteine, or N-acetylcysteine led to the production of the appropriate thioyl radical which could be observed using EPR spectroscopy in conjunction with the spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide. This confirms earlier work using acetaminophen (Ross, D., Albano, E., Nilsson, U., and Moldéus, P. (1984) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 125, 109-115). The further reactions of glutathionyl radicals (GS.), generated during horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of p-phenetidine and acetaminophen in the presence of GSH, were investigated by following kinetics of oxygen uptake and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) formation. Oxygen uptake and GSSG generation were dependent on the concentration of GSH but above that which was required for maximal interaction with the primary amine or phenoxy radical generated during peroxidatic oxidation of p-phenetidine or acetaminophen, suggesting that a secondary GSH-dependent process was responsible for oxygen uptake and GSSG production. GSSG was the only product of thiol oxidation detected during peroxidatic oxidation of p-phenetidine or acetaminophen in the presence of GSH, but under nitrogen saturation conditions its production was reduced to 8 and 33% of the corresponding amounts obtained under aerobic conditions in the cases of p-phenetidine and acetaminophen, respectively. Nitrogen saturation conditions did not affect horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed metabolism. This shows that the main route of GSSG generation in such reactions is not by dimerization of GS. but via mechanism(s) involving oxygen consumption such as via GSSG-. or via GSOOH.     

Molecular mechanisms of ceramide-mediated CD95 clustering.

Receptor clustering has been suggested as a crucial mechanism to initiate receptor signaling. Here we show that ceramide in sphingolipid-rich membrane rafts mediates clustering of CD95. Neutralization of surface ceramide or inhibition of its endogenous generation prevented CD95 clustering. Furthermore, application of ceramide at the cell surface triggered clustering of active but not inactive CD95. Apoptosis was inhibited by neutralization of surface ceramide or inhibition of ceramide release in vitro and in vivo. Thus, we conclude that surface ceramide mediates CD95 clustering, which is required for initiation of apoptosis, at least in some cell types.     

A [2Fe-2S] protein from the hyperthermophilic bacterium Aquifex aeolicus.

Overexpression in Escherichia coli of the fdx4 gene from Aquifex aeolicus has allowed isolation and characterization of the first hyperthermophilic [2Fe-2S](Scys)(4) protein, a homodimer of M = 2 x 12.4 kDa with one [2Fe-2S] cluster per subunit. This protein is undamaged by heating to 100 degrees C for at least three hours. The primary structure, in particular the characteristic distribution of the four cysteine ligands of the metal site, and the spectroscopic properties of the A. aeolicus protein relate it to well characterized [2Fe-2S] proteins from Clostridium pasteurianum and Azotobacter vinelandii. These proteins are also homologous to subunits or domains of hydrogenases and NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (Complex I) of respiratory chains. The A. aeolicus [2Fe-2S] protein is thus representative of a presumably novel protein fold involved in a variety of functions in very diverse cellular backgrounds.