FT-IR Spectroscopy for Rapid Differentiation of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus parasiticus and Characterization of Aflatoxigenic Isolates Collected from Agricultural Environments

In agricultural areas, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus parasiticus are commonly identified in various feedstuffs and bioaerosols originated from feed handling. Some isolates belonging to these fungal species could produce mycotoxins and constitute a risk factor for human and animal health. In this study, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was used for a rapid detection and characterization of 99 isolates collected from agricultural areas. The results showed a first cluster corresponding to strains previously attributed to the A. fumigatus group according to current taxonomic concepts, and a second cluster divided in 2 groups around reference strains of A. flavus and A. parasiticus species. The toxigenic capacity of isolates was evaluated by high performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. In the A. flavus group, only 6 strains of A. parasiticus and 4 strains of A. flavus were able to produce aflatoxins on culture media. FT-IR spectroscopy, respectively, allowed the differentiation of non-toxigenic and toxigenic A. flavus and A. parasiticus isolates at 75 and 100%. Discrimination between toxigenic and non-toxigenic A. fumigatus was not possible because all of the isolates produced at least one mycotoxin.     

Tracing the origin of US brown marmorated stink bugs, Halyomorpha halys

Identifying the origin of a biological invasion has important applications to the effective control of the invaders. This is more critical for invasive agricultural pests that cause severe economic losses. The brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys, originally from East Asia, has become a principal agricultural pest in the US since its first detection in Pennsylvania in 1996. This species is responsible for crop failures on many mid-Atlantic farms and current control efforts rely on heavy insecticide applications because no other options are available. To examine the genetic diversity and identify the source region of the US introductions, we sequenced portions of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit II gene, 12S ribosomal RNA gene and control region in populations from the US, China, South Korea and Japan. We detected high genetic divergence among native populations and traced the origin of US H. halys to the Beijing area in China. We observed much lower genetic diversity in exotic compared to native populations—two mitochondrial haplotypes in 55 US specimens versus 43 haplotypes in 77 native specimens. A single introduction of small propagule size matches the invasion history in the US. For the effective control of the US population, we suggest that surveys on egg parasitoids and insecticide resistance in natives should focus on the Beijing area in China.     

Selection for population‐specific adaptation shaped patterns of variation in the photoperiod pathway genes in Arabidopsis lyrata during post‐glacial colonization

Spatially varying selection can lead to population‐specific adaptation, which is often recognized at the phenotypic level; however, the genetic evidence is weaker in many groups of organisms. In plants, environmental shifts that occur due to colonization of a novel environment may require adaptive changes in the timing of growth and flowering, which are often governed by location‐specific environmental cues such as day length. We studied locally varying selection in 19 flowering time loci in nine populations of the perennial herb Arabidopsis lyrata, which has a wide but patchy distribution in temperate and boreal regions of the northern hemisphere. The populations differ in their recent population demographic and colonization histories and current environmental conditions, especially in the growing season length. We searched for population‐specific molecular signatures of directional selection by comparing a set of candidate flowering time loci with a genomic reference set within each population using multiple approaches and contrasted the patterns of different populations. The candidate loci possessed approximately 20% of the diversity of the reference loci. On average the flowering time loci had more rare alleles (a smaller Tajima's D) and an excess of highly differentiated sites relative to the reference, suggesting positive selection. The strongest signal of selection was detected in photoperiodic pathway loci in the colonizing populations of Northwestern Europe, whereas no evidence of positive selection was detected in the Central European populations. These findings emphasized the population‐specific nature of selection and suggested that photoperiodic adaptation was important during postglacial colonization of the species.     

Systematic identification of proteins that elicit drug side effects

Side effect similarities of drugs have recently been employed to predict new drug targets, and networks of side effects and targets have been used to better understand the mechanism of action of drugs. Here, we report a large‐scale analysis to systematically predict and characterize proteins that cause drug side effects. We integrated phenotypic data obtained during clinical trials with known drug–target relations to identify overrepresented protein–side effect combinations. Using independent data, we confirm that most of these overrepresentations point to proteins which, when perturbed, cause side effects. Of 1428 side effects studied, 732 were predicted to be predominantly caused by individual proteins, at least 137 of them backed by existing pharmacological or phenotypic data. We prove this concept in vivo by confirming our prediction that activation of the serotonin 7 receptor (HTR7) is responsible for hyperesthesia in mice, which, in turn, can be prevented by a drug that selectively inhibits HTR7. Taken together, we show that a large fraction of complex drug side effects are mediated by individual proteins and create a reference for such relations.     

A new Vibrio cholerae sRNA modulates colonization and affects release of outer membrane vesicles

We discovered a new small non-coding RNA (sRNA) gene, vrrA of Vibrio cholerae O1 strain A1552. A vrrA mutant overproduces OmpA porin, and we demonstrate that the 140 nt VrrA RNA represses ompA translation by base-pairing with the 5' region of the mRNA. The RNA chaperone Hfq is not stringently required for VrrA action, but expression of the vrrA gene requires the membrane stress sigma factor, sigma(E), suggesting that VrrA acts on ompA in response to periplasmic protein folding stress. We also observed that OmpA levels inversely correlated with the number of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), and that VrrA increased OMV production comparable to loss of OmpA. VrrA is the first sRNA known to control OMV formation. Moreover, a vrrA mutant showed a fivefold increased ability to colonize the intestines of infant mice as compared with the wild type. There was increased expression of the main colonization factor of V. cholerae, the toxin co-regulated pili, in the vrrA mutant as monitored by immunoblot detection of the TcpA protein. VrrA overproduction caused a distinct reduction in the TcpA protein level. Our findings suggest that VrrA contributes to bacterial fitness in certain stressful environments, and modulates infection of the host intestinal tract.     

Ten simple rules for establishing a mentorship programme

In recent years, a wide variety of mentorship programmes targeting issues that cannot be addressed through traditional teaching and learning methods alone have been developed. Mentoring plays significant roles in the growth and development of both mentors and mentees, and the positive impacts of mentoring have been well documented. Mentorship programmes are therefore increasingly being implemented in a wide variety of fields by organisations, academic institutes, businesses, and governments. While there is a growing body of literature on mentoring and mentorship programmes, gaining a clear overview of the field is often challenging. In this article, we therefore provide a concise summary of recommendations to consider when designing and establishing mentorship programmes. These recommendations are based on the collective knowledge and experiences of 4 different emerging and established mentorship programmes and can be adapted across various mentorship settings or contexts.     

Functional dissection of the Drosophila modifier of variegation Su(var)3-7

An increase in the dose of the heterochromatin-associated Su(var)3-7 protein of Drosophila augments the genomic silencing of position-effect variegation. We have expressed a number of fragments of the protein in flies to assign functions to the different domains. Specific binding to pericentric heterochromatin depends on the C-terminal half of the protein. The N terminus, containing six of the seven widely spaced zinc fingers, is required for binding to bands on euchromatic arms, with no preference for pericentric heterochromatin. In contrast to the enhancing properties of the full-length protein, the N terminus half has no effect on heterochromatin-dependent position-effect variegation. In contrast, the C terminus moiety suppresses variegation. This dominant negative effect on variegation could result from association of the fragment with the wild type endogenous protein. Indeed, we have found and mapped a domain of self-association in this C-terminal half. Furthermore, a small fragment of the C-terminal region actually depletes pericentric heterochromatin from endogenous Su(var)3-7 and has a very strong suppressor effect. This depletion is not followed by a depletion of HP1, a companion of Su(var)3-7. This indicates that Su(var)3-7 does not recruit HP1 to heterochromatin. We propose in conclusion that the association of Su(var)3-7 to heterochromatin depends on protein-protein interaction mediated by the C-terminal half of the sequence, while the silencing function requires also the N-terminal half containing the zinc fingers.     

Decreased Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Cells with Mitochondrial Haplogroups Associated with Longevity

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is highly polymorphic, and its variations in humans may contribute to individual differences in function. Zhang and colleagues found a strikingly higher frequency of a C150T transition in the D-loop of mtDNA from centenarians and twins of an Italian population, and also demonstrated that this base substitution causes a remodeling of the mtDNA 151 replication origin in human leukocytes and fibroblasts [1]. The C150T transition is a polymorphism associated with several haplogroups. To determine whether haplogroups that carry the C150T transition display any phenotype that may be advantageous for longevity, we analyzed cybrids carrying or not the C150T transition. These cybrids were obtained by fusing cytoplasts derived from human fibroblasts with human mtDNA-less cells (ρ⁰ cells). We chose for cybrid construction and analysis haplogroup-matched pairs of fibroblast strains containing or not the C150T transition. In particular, we used, as one pair of mtDNA donors, a fibroblast strain of the U3a haplogroup, carrying the C150T transition and a strain of the U-K2 haplogroup, without the C150T transition, and as another pair, fibroblasts of the J2b haplogroup, carrying the C150T transition and of the J1c haplogroup, without the C150T transition. We have found no association of respiratory capacity, mtDNA level, mitochondrial gene expression level, or growth rate with the presence of the C150T transition. However, we have found that the cybrids with haplogroups that include the C150T transition have in common a lower reactive oxygen species (ROS) production rate than the haplogroup-matched cybrids without that transition. Thus, the lower ROS production rate may be a factor in the increased longevity associated with the U and the J2 haplogroups. Of further interest, we found that cybrids with the U3a haplogroup exhibited a higher respiration rate than the other cybrids examined.     

Apo and inhibitor complex structures of BACE (beta-secretase)

Human BACE, also known as beta-secretase, shows promise as a potential therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease. We determined the apo structure of BACE to 1.75 A, and a structure of a hydroxyethylamine inhibitor complex derived by soaking. These show significant active-site movements compared to previously described BACE structures. Additionally, the structures reveal two pockets that could be targeted by structure-based drug design.     

HIV epidemics in Africa: what explains the variations in HIV prevalence?

There are large differences in the prevalence of HIV infection between different regions in sub-Saharan Africa, ranging from less than 10% in pregnant women in most of West Africa, to over 25% in pregnant women in large cities in Eastern and Southern Africa. These differences in HIV prevalence are in many instances due to differences in rate of spread of the virus. The multicenter study on factors determining the differential spread of HIV in four African cities tried to identify factors that could explain differences in spread of HIV between different regions in sub-Saharan Africa. The study was conducted in four cities, including two cities with a relatively low HIV prevalence (Cotonou in Bénin and Yaoundé in Cameroon) and two cities with a high HIV prevalence (Kisumu in Kenya and Ndola in Zambia). The difference in HIV prevalence between the four cities could not be explained by differences in sexual behavior. Any differences in sexual behavior were outweighed by differences in factors that influence HIV transmission, i.e. male circumcision and HSV-2 infection. These findings have important implications for the design of interventions.