Small worms, big appetites: ratios of different functional morphs in relation to interspecific competition in trematode parasites

Animals living in colonies or collectives composed of highly-related individuals often produce morphs that are physically and behaviourally specialised to perform specific tasks. Because such morphs are often sterile, their production represents a fitness cost for the colony and there should be an optimal ratio of the numbers of sterile specialists and reproductive members that may be adjustable to environmental conditions. Trematode parasites undergo asexual multiplication within their snail intermediate host, resulting in large numbers of clonal stages known as rediae or sporocysts, depending on the trematode species. In areas with high prevalences of infection, the host can be infected by multiple species, which can lead to intense competition for limited resources. Here, we describe the existence of specialised ‘mini-rediae’ in the trematode Philophthalmus sp. that are morphologically and functionally specialised for interspecific competition. Mini-rediae were observed feeding on the sporocysts of a co-occurring trematode species - Maritrema novaezealandensis. In addition, in larger snails - which are less likely to have M. novaezealandensis infections - Philophthalmus sp. produces relatively fewer mini-rediae than expected. Our findings support results from a prior study which demonstrated the existence of morphs that perform specialised functions in antagonistic interspecific interactions in trematodes, and additionally shows that the number of these morphs in each host is associated with the likelihood of encountering other species within the same host. Trematodes may thus provide interesting models for studying morphological specialisation in colonial organisms.     

Intra-host competition between co-infecting digeneans within a bivalve second intermediate host: Dominance by priority-effect or taking advantage of others?

We experimentally investigated the interactions between two parasites known to manipulate their host's phenotype, the trematodes Acanthoparyphium sp. and Curtuteria australis, which infect the cockle Austrovenus stutchburyi. The larval stages of both species encyst within the tissue of the bivalve's muscular foot, with a preference for the tip of the foot. As more individuals accumulate at that site, they impair the burrowing behaviour of cockles and increase the probability of the parasites' transmission to a bird definitive host. However, individuals at the foot tip are also vulnerable to non-host predators in the form of foot-cropping fish which selectively bite off the foot tip of exposed cockles. Parasites encysted at the foot base are safe from such predators although they do not contribute to altering host behaviour, but nevertheless benefit from host manipulation as all parasites within the cockle are transmitted if it is ingested by a bird. Experimental infection revealed that Acanthoparyphium sp. and C. australis have different encystment patterns within the host, with proportionally fewer Acanthoparyphium metacercariae encysting at the foot tip than C. australis. This indicates that Acanthoparyphium may benefit indirectly from C. australis and incur a lower risk of non-host predation. However, in co-infections, not only did C. australis have higher infectivity than Acanthoparyphium, it also severely affected the latter's infection success. The asymmetrical strategies and interactions between the two species suggest that the advantages obtained from exploiting the host manipulation efforts of another parasite might be offset by traits such as reduced competitiveness in co-infections.     

Correlation of genomic and physiological traits of thermoanaerobacter species with biofuel yields

Thermophilic anaerobic noncellulolytic Thermoanaerobacter species are of great biotechnological importance in cellulosic ethanol production due to their ability to produce high ethanol yields by simultaneous fermentation of hexose and pentose. Understanding the genome structure of these species is critical to improving and implementing these bacteria for possible biotechnological use in consolidated bioprocessing schemes (CBP) for cellulosic ethanol production. Here we describe a comparative genome analysis of two ethanologenic bacteria, Thermoanaerobacter sp. X514 and Thermoanaerobacter pseudethanolicus 39E. Compared to 39E, X514 has several unique key characteristics important to cellulosic biotechnology, including additional alcohol dehydrogenases and xylose transporters, modifications to pentose metabolism, and a complete vitamin B₁₂ biosynthesis pathway. Experimental results from growth, metabolic flux, and microarray gene expression analyses support genome sequencing-based predictions which help to explain the distinct differences in ethanol production between these strains. The availability of whole-genome sequence and comparative genomic analyses will aid in engineering and optimizing Thermoanaerobacter strains for viable CBP strategies.     

Survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on cattle hides

The objective of this study was to determine the time period that Escherichia coli O157:H7 survives on the hides of cattle. Extensive research has been conducted and is ongoing to identify and develop novel preharvest intervention strategies to reduce the presence of E. coli O157:H7 on live cattle and subsequent transfer to processed carcasses. If a reduction of E. coli O157:H7 levels in feces can be achieved through preharvest intervention, it is not known how long it would take for such reductions to be seen on the hide. In the study presented herein, three trials were conducted to follow E. coli O157:H7 hide prevalence over time. For each trial, 36 animals were housed in individual stanchions to minimize or prevent hide contamination events. Through prevalence determination and isolate genotyping with pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, survival of E. coli O157:H7 on the hides of live cattle was determined to be short lived, with an approximate duration of 9 days or less. The results of this study suggest that any preharvest interventions that are to be administered at the end of the finishing period will achieve maximum effect in reducing E. coli O157:H7 levels on cattle hides if given 9 days before the cattle are presented for processing. However, it should be noted that interventions reducing pathogen shedding would also contribute to decreasing hide contamination through lowering the contamination load of the processing plant lairage environment, regardless of the time of application.     

Toward preclinical predictive drug testing for metabolism and hepatotoxicity by using in vitro models derived from human embryonic stem cells and human cell lines - a report on the Vitrocellomics EU-project

Drug-induced liver injury is a common reason for drug attrition in late clinical phases, and even for post-launch withdrawals. As a consequence, there is a broad consensus in the pharmaceutical industry, and within regulatory authorities, that a significant improvement of the current in vitro test methodologies for accurate assessment and prediction of such adverse effects is needed. For this purpose, appropriate in vivo-like hepatic in vitro models are necessary, in addition to novel sources of human hepatocytes. In this report, we describe recent and ongoing research toward the use of human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived hepatic cells, in conjunction with new and improved test methods, for evaluating drug metabolism and hepatotoxicity. Recent progress on the directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells to the functional hepatic phenotype is reported, as well as the development and adaptation of bioreactors and toxicity assay technologies for the testing of hepatic cells. The aim of achieving a testing platform for metabolism and hepatotoxicity assessment, based on hESC-derived hepatic cells, has advanced markedly in the last 2-3 years. However, great challenges still remain, before such new test systems could be routinely used by the industry. In particular, we give an overview of results from the Vitrocellomics project (EU Framework 6) and discuss these in relation to the current state-of-the-art and the remaining difficulties, with suggestions on how to proceed before such in vitro systems can be implemented in industrial discovery and development settings and in regulatory acceptance.     

Phylogeography of the spring and fall waves of the H1N1/09 pandemic influenza virus in the United States

Spatial variation in the epidemiological patterns of successive waves of pandemic influenza virus in humans has been documented throughout the 20th century but never understood at a molecular level. However, the unprecedented intensity of sampling and whole-genome sequencing of the H1N1/09 pandemic virus now makes such an approach possible. To determine whether the spring and fall waves of the H1N1/09 influenza pandemic were associated with different epidemiological patterns, we undertook a large-scale phylogeographic analysis of viruses sampled from three localities in the United States. Analysis of genomic and epidemiological data reveals distinct spatial heterogeneities associated with the first pandemic wave, March to July 2009, in Houston, TX, Milwaukee, WI, and New York State. In Houston, no specific H1N1/09 viral lineage dominated during the spring of 2009, a period when little epidemiological activity was observed in Texas. In contrast, major pandemic outbreaks occurred at this time in Milwaukee and New York State, each dominated by a different viral lineage and resulting from strong founder effects. During the second pandemic wave, beginning in August 2009, all three U.S. localities were dominated by a single viral lineage, that which had been dominant in New York during wave 1. Hence, during this second phase of the pandemic, extensive viral migration and mixing diffused the spatially defined population structure that had characterized wave 1, amplifying the one viral lineage that had dominated early on in one of the world's largest international travel centers.     

Pharmacological and genetic evaluation of proposed roles of mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (MEK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and p90(RSK) in the control of mTORC1 protein signaling by phorbol esters

The mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) links the control of mRNA translation, cell growth, and metabolism to diverse stimuli. Inappropriate activation of mTORC1 can lead to cancer. Phorbol esters are naturally occurring products that act as potent tumor promoters. They activate isoforms of protein kinase C (PKCs) and stimulate the oncogenic MEK/ERK signaling cascade. They also activate mTORC1 signaling. Previous work indicated that mTORC1 activation by the phorbol ester PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate) depends upon PKCs and may involve MEK. However, the precise mechanism(s) through which they activate mTORC1 remains unclear. Recent studies have implicated both the ERKs and the ERK-activated 90-kDa ribosomal S6 kinases (p90(RSK)) in activating mTORC1 signaling via phosphorylation of TSC2 (a regulator of mTORC1) and/or the mTORC1 component raptor. However, the relative importance of each of these kinases and phosphorylation events for the activation of mTORC1 signaling is unknown. The recent availability of MEK (PD184352) and p90(RSK) (BI-D1870) inhibitors of improved specificity allowed us to address the roles of these protein kinases in controlling mTORC1 in a variety of human and rodent cell types. In parallel, we used specific shRNAs against p90(RSK1) and p90(RSK2) to further test their roles in regulating mTORC1 signaling. Our data indicate that p90(RSKs) are dispensable for the activation of mTORC1 signaling by phorbol esters in all cell types tested. Our data also reveal striking diversity in the requirements for MEK/ERK in the control of mTORC1 between different cell types, pointing to additional signaling connections between phorbol esters and mTORC1, which do not involve MEK/ERK. This study provides important information for the design of efficient strategies to combat the hyperactivation of mTORC1 signaling by oncogenic pathways.     

Social status and personality: stability in social state can promote consistency of behavioural responses

Stability of ‘state’ has been suggested as an underlying factor explaining behavioural stability and animal personality (i.e. variation among, and consistency within individuals in behavioural responses), but the possibility that stable social relationships represent such states remains unexplored. Here, we investigated the influence of social status on the expression and consistency of behaviours by experimentally changing social status between repeated personality assays. We used male domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus), a social species that forms relatively stable dominance hierarchies, and showed that behavioural responses were strongly affected by social status, but also by individual characteristics. The level of vigilance, activity and exploration changed with social status, whereas boldness appeared as a stable individual property, independent of status. Furthermore, variation in vocalization predicted future social status, indicating that individual behaviours can both be a predictor and a consequence of social status, depending on the aspect in focus. Our results illustrate that social states contribute to both variation and stability in behavioural responses, and should therefore be taken into account when investigating and interpreting variation in personality.     

Quantitative proteomics reveals differentially expressed proteins in murine preneoplastic intestine in a model of intestinal tumorigenesis induced by low dietary folate and MTHFR deficiency

Colorectal cancer risk is increased when dietary folate intake is low, with or without a deficiency in methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR). We have observed that intestinal tumors are induced in mice fed low‐folate diets, and that tumor incidence is increased when these mice also have MTHFR deficiency. This study was undertaken to identify differentially expressed proteins in conditions favoring initial steps of murine carcinogenesis in normal preneoplastic intestine. We compared the proteome of BALB/c normal intestine in Mthfr^+/+ mice fed control diets for 1 year (low susceptibility to tumorigenesis) with the proteome of Mthfr^+/? animals fed low folate diets (higher tumor susceptibility). Our data suggest that the NuRD complex, KRAS‐related proteins, the protein synthetic machinery, and fatty acid‐related metabolic proteins are upregulated in the early stages of tumorigenesis. These proteins may serve as biomarkers or targets for colorectal cancer diagnosis or therapy.     

Identification of metabolites from 2D 1H-13C HSQC NMR using peak correlation plots

Background

Identification of individual components in complex mixtures is an important and sometimes daunting task in several research areas like metabolomics and natural product studies. NMR spectroscopy is an excellent technique for analysis of mixtures of organic compounds and gives a detailed chemical fingerprint of most individual components above the detection limit. For the identification of individual metabolites in metabolomics, correlation or covariance between peaks in ¹H NMR spectra has previously been successfully employed. Similar correlation of 2D ¹H-¹³C Heteronuclear Single Quantum Correlation spectra was recently applied to investigate the structure of heparine. In this paper, we demonstrate how a similar approach can be used to identify metabolites in human biofluids (post-prostatic palpation urine).

Results

From 50 ¹H-¹³C Heteronuclear Single Quantum Correlation spectra, 23 correlation plots resembling pure metabolites were constructed. The identities of these metabolites were confirmed by comparing the correlation plots with reported NMR data, mostly from the Human Metabolome Database.

Conclusions

Correlation plots prepared by statistically correlating ¹H-¹³C Heteronuclear Single Quantum Correlation spectra from human biofluids provide unambiguous identification of metabolites. The correlation plots highlight cross-peaks belonging to each individual compound, not limited by long-range magnetization transfer as conventional NMR experiments.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12859-014-0413-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.