The brain of Homo habilis: A new level of organization in cerebral evolution

New studies have been made on endocranial casts of Olduvai specimens of Homo habilis. The results have been compared with those on other East African H. habilis and other hominoids. The mean absolute endocranial capacity of H. habilis is appreciably larger than the mean for australopithecine species: on the new estimates, the H. habilis mean is 45·1% greater than the A. africanus mean and 24·8% greater than that of A. boisei. New data for relative brain size, expressed by Jerison's Nc and EQ and Hemmer's CC, strongly confirm that it was with H. habilis that there appeared the remarkable autapomorphy of Homo, disproportionate expansion of the brain. Encephalometric studies reveal marked transverse expansion of the cerebrum, especially the frontal and parieto-occipital parts, in H. habilis and increased bulk of the frontal and parietal lobes, a derived feature of Homo. There is moderate cerebral heightening, but little or no cerebral lengthening. The sulcal and gyral pattern of the lateral part of the frontal lobe of H. habilis differs from those of Australopithecus and resembles the derived pattern of Homo. The inferior parietal lobule is prominently developed—an autapomorphy of Homo. The two major cerebral areas governing spoken language in modern man are well represented in the endocasts of H. habilis, a functionally important autapomorphy of Homo. The pattern of middle meningeal vessels is more complex with more anastomoses than in australopithecines: H. habilis shares this derived feature with later forms of Homo. In all these features, the brain of H. habilis had made major advances, beyond the more ape-like australopithecine brain. With H. habilis, cerebral evolution had progressed beyond the stage of “animal hominids” (Australopithecus spp.) to that of “human hominids” (Homo spp.). In functional capacity, in particular, its possession of a structural marker of the neurological basis of spoken language, H. habilis had attained a new evolutionary level of organization.     

Integration of transhumant pastoralism and irrigated agriculture in semi-arid East Africa

Agricultural development projects in the fertile and most well-watered areas of arid and semiarid Africa usually deny access to nomadic pastoralists whose production system and livelihood depend upon such areas in the dry season and during frequent droughts. The result can be degradation of range resources through overgrazing, and greater vulnerability of pastoralists. Recent calls for compatible land use schemes or nonexclusionary agricultural development projects in the context of pastoralist transhumance, suggest allowing pastoralists structured access to project sites in the dry season in order to utilize forage and water supplies. This paper examines the capacity of an irrigation scheme to support the seasonal influx of transhumant livestock in dry seasons of varying severity. The livestock carrying capacity of the existing mosaic of land use patterns and practices is used in the determination of the proportional areas of land use needed to absorb large seasonal concentrations of livestock.     

A selection cartridge for rapid detection and analysis of spontaneous mutations including insertions of transposable elements in Enterobacteriaceae

Summary We present a method that allows positive selection and rapid analysis of mutations in Enterobacteriaceae. Mutations are detected in a 2630 bp selection cartridge inserted in two different bacterial mutlicopy plasmid vectors. Spontaneous mutations in Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae and Citrobacter freundii include insertions, deletions and point mutations. The small size of the target sequence facilitates rapid analysis of DNA rearrangements by cleavage with restriction enzymes and of any type of mutation by DNA sequence analysis. While in E. coli insertions of the mobile elements IS1, IS2 and IS5 were readily found, insertions of putative new transposable elements were detected in Enterobacter cloacae. The selection cartridge can thus serve as a tool for studying the spectrum of insertion mutations in Enterobacteriaceae and probably other Gramnegative bacteria, and the dependency of this spectrum on physiological and environmental factors and the host's genetic background can be investigated.     

Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide activation of 7OZ/3 cells by anti-lipopolysaccharide antibodies

We have investigated the ability of mAb against LPS to inhibit LPS-induced activation of 7OZ/3 pre-B cells. The fine specificity and relative affinity of these mAb for lipid A and LPS were also determined. We found that antibodies inhibited only the activity of glycolipids which they bound with relatively high affinity. However, two high affinity antibodies binding to non-lipid A epitopes did not block cellular activation. Some, but not all, relatively high affinity antibodies binding to the lipid A region of the LPS molecule inhibited biologic activity. The inhibitory antibodies bound to at least two distinct epitopes within the lipid A region. These data suggest that LPS interacts with 7OZ/3 cells in a highly specific fashion.     

On the scientific,medical, dental and educational value of collections of human skeletons

Having been approached from time to time by various museum, university and governmental authorities in Australia, California and Scotland, I have set down some brief notes on the scientific, medical, dental and educational importance and value of collections of recent human skeletons drawn from populations in all parts of the world. This article does not pretend to completeness. It has been set down in the hope that it may be of assistance to those officiers in charge of such collections and who may be pondering upon the worthwhileness of such collections being retained and maintained.     

Direct effects on the membrane potential due to "pumps" that transfer no net charge

The effects of active ionic transport are included in the derivation of a general expression for the zero current membrane potential. It is demonstrated that an active transport system that transfers no net charge (nonrheogenic) may, nevertheless, directly alter the membrane potential. This effect depends upon the exchange of matter within the membrane between the active and passive diffusion regimes. Furthermore, in the presence of such exchange, the transmembrane active fluxes measured by the usual techniques and the local pumped fluxes are not identical. Several common uses of the term “electrogenic pump” are thus shown to be inconsistent with each other. These inconsistencies persist when the derivation is extended to produce a Goldman equation modified to account for active transport; however, that equation is shown to be limited by less narrow constraints on membrane heterogeneity and internal electric field than those previously required. In particular, it is applicable to idealized mosaic membranes limited by these requirements.     

The outer solar system: Perspectives for exobiology

The outer solar system contains many environments of interest for studies of the origin of life. Recent observations support the idea that Jupiter and Saturn have retained the mixture of elements originally present in the solar nebula. Subsequent low temperature chemistry has produced the expected array of simple molecules giving characteristic absorption bands in the spectra of these planets. Microwave and infrared observations show that the lower atmospheres are at temperatures above 300 K. Sources of energy for non-equilibrium chemistry seem available at least on Jupiter and the presence of an array of colored materials in the Jovian cloud belts has often been cited as evidence for the existence of complex abiogenic organic molecules. Further study of both planets in an exobiological context seems well worthwhile; potentially productive methods of investigation (including planned space missions) can be described and evaluated from this point of view. Uranus and Neptune are clearly deficient in light gases, but otherwise little is known with certainty about these distant planets. Again unusually high temperatures have been reported, but not above 273 K. Pluto and many of the outer planet satellites appear to represent a class of small bodies very unlike our neighbors in the inner solar system. Titan, Saturn's largest satellite, is especially interesting for our purposes because of its atmosphere. Methane and hydrogen are both present, and Titan's unusually reddish color again suggests the presence of organic compounds. The hydrogen-methane ratio is likely to be more similar to that of a primitive reducing terrestrial atmosphere than the ratios for Jupiter and Saturn, suggesting that in some respects this satellite may provide an even better model for early organic synthesis on the Earth. The problem of Titan's heat balance and atmospheric composition are currently under active investigation.     

Nonsteady-State Three Compartment Tracer Kinetics: II. Sodium Flux Transients in the Toad Urinary Bladder in Response to Short Circuit

The theoretical approach presented in the previous paper provides an analytical method for determining the unidirectional, nonsteady-state fluxes in a three compartment system. Based on this a study was made of the sodium flux transients in the toad urinary bladder. A transient time-dependent state was generated by suddenly short-circuiting a bladder previously maintained in an open-circuited steady state. The sequence of experiments suggested by the theory provided the data required for the analysis. The results of these tracer experiments were consistent with the complex non-three compartmental structure of this tissue. As a result both of the inadequacy of the three compartment model in representing the tissue and of certain experimental difficulties, attempts at a quantitative solution were not entirely successful. Useful information was nevertheless obtained through a careful use of this model, and a qualitative analysis implied that the sodium influxes into the tissue at both of its surfaces are sensitive to changes in electrical potential while both effluxes are insensitive to this change. This suggests that both of the effluxes result from active processes while both influxes are associated with passive processes. The net transepithelial transport of sodium would then necessarily result from a more complex polarization than that proposed by Koefoed-Johnsen and Ussing.