Role of nonstructural proteins 3A and 3B in host range and pathogenicity of foot-and-mouth disease virus

The genome of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) differs from that of other picornaviruses in that it encodes a larger 3A protein (>50% longer than poliovirus 3A), as well as three copies of protein 3B (also known as VPg). Previous studies have shown that a deletion of amino acids 93 to 102 of the 153-codon 3A protein is associated with an inability of a Taiwanese strain of FMDV (O/TAW/97) to cause disease in bovines. Recently, an Asian virus with a second 3A deletion (amino acids 133 to 143) has also been detected (N. J. Knowles et al., J. Virol. 75:1551-1556, 2001). Genetically engineered viruses harboring the amino acids 93 to 102 or 133 to 143 grew well in porcine cells but replicated poorly in bovine cells, whereas a genetically engineered derivative of the O/TAW/97 virus expressing a full-length 3A (strain A12) grew well in both cell types. Interestingly, a virus with a deletion spanning amino acid 93 to 144 also grew well in porcine cells and caused disease in swine. Further, genetically engineered viruses containing only a single copy of VPg were readily recovered with the full-length 3A, the deleted 3A (amino acids 93 to 102), or the "super" deleted forms of 3A (missing amino acids 93 to 144). All of the single-VPg viruses were attenuated in porcine cells and replicated poorly in bovine cells. The single-VPg viruses produced a mild disease in swine, indicating that the VPg copy number is an important determinant of host range and virulence. The association of VPg copy number with increased virulence in vivo may help to explain why all naturally occurring FMDVs have retained three copies of VPg.     

Structure-function analysis of herpes simplex virus type 1 gD and gH-gL: clues from gDgH chimeras

In alphaherpesviruses, glycoprotein B (gB), gD, gH, and gL are essential for virus entry. A replication-competent gL-null pseudorabies virus (PrV) (B. G. Klupp and T. C. Mettenleiter, J. Virol. 73:3014-3022, 1999) was shown to express a gDgH hybrid protein that could replace gD, gH, and gL in cell-cell fusion and null virus complementation assays. To study this phenomenon in herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), we constructed four gDgH chimeras, joining the first 308 gD amino acids to various gH N-terminal truncations. The chimeras were named for the first amino acid of gH at which each was truncated: 22, 259, 388, and 432. All chimeras were immunoprecipitated with both gD and gH antibodies to conformational epitopes. Normally, transport of gH to the cell surface requires gH-gL complex formation. Chimera 22 contains full-length gH fused to gD308. Unlike PrV gDgH, chimera 22 required gL for transport to the surface of transfected Vero cells. Interestingly, although chimera 259 failed to reach the cell surface, chimeras 388 and 432 exhibited gL-independent transport. To examine gD and gH domain function, each chimera was tested in cell-cell fusion and null virus complementation assays. Unlike PrV gDgH, none of the HSV-1 chimeras substituted for gL for fusion. Only chimera 22 was able to replace gH for fusion and could also replace either gH or gD in the complementation assay. Surprisingly, this chimera performed very poorly as a substitute for gD in the fusion assay despite its ability to complement gD-null virus and bind HSV entry receptors (HveA and nectin-1). Chimeras 388 and 432, which contain the same portion of gD as that in chimera 22, substituted for gD for fusion at 25 to 50% of wild-type levels. However, these chimeras functioned poorly in gD-null virus complementation assays. The results highlight the fact that these two functional assays are measuring two related but distinct processes.     

Trypanosoma brucei has two distinct mitochondrial DNA polymerase beta enzymes

In higher eukaryotes, DNA polymerase (pol) beta resides in the nucleus and participates primarily in DNA repair. The DNA polymerase beta from the trypanosomatid Crithidia fasciculata, however, was the first mitochondrial enzyme of this type described. Upon searching the nearly completed genome data base of the related parasite Trypanosoma brucei, we discovered genes for two pol beta-like proteins. One is approximately 70% identical to the C. fasciculata pol beta and is likely the homolog of this enzyme. The other, although approximately 30% identical within the polymerase region, has unusual structural features including a short C-terminal tail and a long N-terminal extension rich in prolines, alanines, and lysines. Both proteins, when expressed recombinantly, are active as DNA polymerases and deoxyribose phosphate lyases, but their polymerase activity optima differ with respect to pH and KCl and MgCl2 concentrations. Remarkably, green fluorescent protein fusion proteins and immunofluorescence demonstrate that both are mitochondrial, but their locations with respect to the mitochondrial DNA (kinetoplast DNA network) in this organism are strikingly different.     

Cloning and characterization of the SIL promoter

The SIL gene undergoes a site-specific rearrangement with the SCL gene in 25% of patients with T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The functional result of this rearrangement is that the SIL regulatory elements aberrantly drive expression of the SCL gene. We have cloned and sequenced the human SIL promoter, cloned a murine homolog, found the sequence to be highly conserved, and defined a minimal promoter region. Both the cloned murine and human sequences were found to be highly active in either human or murine cells. SCL mRNA, driven by a cloned SIL promoter, could be downregulated by DMSO in stably transfected F4-6 murine erythroleukemia cells. The SIL promoter was found to be partially unmethylated in proliferating tissues, in which it is highly expressed, and more highly methylated in post-mitotic tissues, in which SIL is not expressed. The isolation of the SIL promoter provides an important tool for the study of both the SIL gene expression as well as the role of the SIL promoter in leukemogenesis.     

Interactions among the three structural motifs of the C-terminal region of human thrombospondin-2

The C-terminal regions of thrombospondins (TSPs) contain three elements, EGF-like modules (E), a series of Ca(2+)-binding repeats (Ca), and a C-terminal sequence (G). We have looked for interactions among these elements in four recombinant proteins based on human TSP-2: E3CaG-2, CaG-2, E3Ca-2, and Ca-2. When bound Ca(2+) was assayed by atomic absorption spectroscopy or an equilibrium dialysis protocol in which Ca(2+) was removed from the proteins prior to equilibrium dialysis, E3CaG-2 bound 22-27 Ca(2+), CaG-2 bound 17-20 Ca(2+), and E3Ca-2 and Ca-2 bound 14-20 Ca(2+). Approximately 10 of the bound Ca(2+) in E3CaG-2 were exchangeable. The far UV circular dichroism (CD) spectrum of Ca(2+)-replete E3CaG-2 contained a strong negative band at 203 nm attributable to Ca and a less intense negative band at 218 nm attributable to Ca and G. Chelation of Ca(2+) with EDTA shifted the 203 nm band of all four proteins and the 218 nm band of E3CaG-2 and CaG-2 to less negative positions. The apparent EC50 for the far UV CD transition was 0.22 mM Ca(2+) for all proteins, indicating that Ca(2+) binding to Ca is primarily responsible for the CD change. Near UV CD and intrinsic fluorescence revealed that the tryptophan residues in G are sensitive to changes in Ca(2+). Differential scanning calorimetry of the proteins in 2 mM Ca(2+) showed that E3CaG-2 melts with two transitions, 44-51 degrees C and 75-83 degrees C. The lower transition required G, while the higher transition required Ca. Both transitions were stabilized in constructs containing E3. These results indicate that E3, Ca, and G function as a complex structural unit, and that the structures of both Ca and G are influenced by the presence or absence of Ca(2+).     

Study of caspase inhibitors for limiting death in mammalian cell culture

Apoptosis in mammalian cell culture is associated with decreased bioproduct yields and can be inhibited through altering the intracellular signaling pathways mediating programmed cell death. In this study, we evaluated the capacity to inhibit caspases to maintain high viable cell numbers in CHO and 293 cultures. Two genetic caspase inhibitors, XIAP and CrmA, were examined along with a mutant of each, XIAP-BIR123NC, which contains three BIR domains but lacks the RING finger, and CrmA-DQMD, which has CrmA's pseudosubstrate site replaced with that of another caspase inhibitor, p35. Stable CHO pooled and 293 clonal cell lines expressing each protein were exposed to apoptotic insults, including spent medium, Sindbis virus, and etoposide. For each insult the mutated protein resulted in higher viabilities than its wild-type counterpart. However, the mutants provided different levels of protection, depending on the insult considered. CrmA-DQMD was the preferred inhibitor for spent medium-induced apoptosis, whereas XIAP-BIR123NC conferred better protection for etoposide-induced death. Addition of Z-VAD.fmk to the genetically engineered cells enhanced viabilities in the presence of spent medium or etoposide; however, the largest increases in viability were experienced by the control cells, indicating an overlap in caspase inhibition between the genetic and chemical inhibitors. Finally, parental 293 cells were treated with caspase-8 and -9 inhibitors, Z-IETD.fmk and Z-LEHD.fmk, in concert with spent medium or etoposide exposure. Spent medium-induced death was delayed more readily with the caspase-8 inhibitors, CrmA-DQMD and Z-IETD.fmk, and etoposide-induced death was stalled more so with XIAP-BIR123NC and Z-LEHD.fmk. These results suggest that the apoptosis pathways induced and the level of protection afforded by a particular caspase inhibitor may vary with the insult considered.     

The kic1 kinase of schizosaccharomyces pombe is a CLK/STY orthologue that regulates cell-cell separation

The CLK/STY kinases are a family of dual-specificity protein kinases implicated in the regulation of cellular growth and differentiation. Some of the kinases in the family are shown to phosphorylate serine-arginine-rich splicing factors and to regulate pre-mRNA splicing. However, the actual cellular mechanism that regulates cell growth, differentiation, and development by CLK/STY remains unclear. Here we show that a functionally conserved CLK/STY kinase exists in Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and this orthologue, called Kic1, regulates the cell surface and septum formation as well as a late step in cytokinesis. The Kic1 protein is modified in vivo, likely by phosphorylation, suggesting that it can be involved in a control cascade. In addition, kic1(+) together with dsk1(+), which encodes a related SR-specific protein kinase, constitutes a critical in vivo function for cell growth. The results provide the first in vivo evidence for the functional conservation of the CLK/STY family through evolution from fission yeast to mammals. Furthermore, since cell division and cell-cell interaction are fundamental for the differentiation and development of an organism, the novel cellular role of kic1(+) revealed from this study offers a clue to the understanding of its counterparts in higher eukaryotes.     

Interplay between hnRNP A1 and a cis-acting element in the 3' UTR of CYP2A5 mRNA is central for high expression of the gene

Our previous evidence suggests that heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A1 plays a part in the regulation of the Cyp2a5 gene by interacting with the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of the CYP2A5 mRNA. However, the exact role of this interaction is not clear. The aim of the present work was to gain further insight into the regulation process of Cyp2a5. For this purpose the 3' UTR of CYP2A5 was fused to the coding region of luciferase mRNA. Luciferase recombinants containing either the full length 3' UTR, or the 3' UTR lacking a previously described 71 nucleotide (nt) region (the hnRNP A1 primary binding site), were transiently expressed in cells expressing or lacking hnRNP A1. The expression of the luciferase recombinants was examined both at mRNA and enzyme activity levels. The results disclosed that the presence of hnRNP A1 was required for the high expression of the recombinant carrying the full length 3' UTR of CYP2A5. Deletion of the hnRNP A1 primary binding site dramatically modified the expression pattern: the mRNA levels and luciferase activities of the deletion mutant were independent from hnRNP A1. These results conclusively demonstrate that the 71 nt region in the 3' UTR of CYP2A5 mRNA can confer hnRNP A1-dependent regulation to a gene. In addition, comparison of RNA levels and luciferase activities suggested that regions flanking the hnRNP A1 binding site could regulate translation of the CYP2A5 mRNA. These results are consistent with a model in which the binding of hnRNP A1 to the 71 nt putative hairpin-loop region in the CYP2A5 mRNA 3' UTR upregulates mRNA levels possibly by protecting the mRNA from degradation.     

Patterns of divergence in the effects of mating on female reproductive performance in flour beetles

Sexual selection can lead to rapid divergence in reproductive characters. Recent studies have indicated that postmating events, such as sperm precedence, may play a key role in speciation. Here, we stress that other components of postmating sexual selection may be involved in the evolution of reproductive isolation. One of these is the reproductive investment made by females after mating (i.e., differential allocation). We performed an experiment designed to assess genetic divergence in the effects of mating on female reproductive performance in flour beetles, Tribolium castaneum. Females were mated to males of three different wild-type genotypes at two different frequencies, in all possible reciprocal combinations. Male genotype affected all aspects of female reproduction, through its effects on female longevity, total offspring production, reproductive rate, mating rate, and fertility. Moreover, male and female genotype interacted in their effects on offspring production and reproductive rate. We use the pattern of these interactions to discuss the evolutionary process of divergence and suggest that the pattern is most consistent with that expected if divergence was driven by sexually antagonistic coevolution. In particular, the fact that females exhibited a relatively weak response to males with which they were coevolved suggests that females have evolved resistance to male gonadotropic signals/stimuli.