Experimente mit Gummibärchen

Experiments with gummy bears With gelatin in the form of gummy bears, the differences to vegetable gelling agents can be easily demonstrated by simple experiments. How these gummy bears can also be used to produce sustainable labels is shown in this article. The presented experiments and instructions are part of a experiment kit with teaching materials for the implementation of a project week in schools with the topic “sustainability”.     

Regulation of DMBT1 via NOD2 and TLR4 in intestinal epithelial cells modulates bacterial recognition and invasion

Mucosal epithelial cell layers are constantly exposed to a complex resident microflora. Deleted in malignant brain tumors 1 (DMBT1) belongs to the group of secreted scavenger receptor cysteine-rich proteins and is considered to be involved in host defense by pathogen binding. This report describes the regulation and function of DMBT1 in intestinal epithelial cells, which form the primary immunological barrier for invading pathogens. We report that intestinal epithelial cells up-regulate DMBT1 upon proinflammatory stimuli (e.g., TNF-alpha, LPS). We demonstrate that DMBT1 is a target gene for the intracellular pathogen receptor NOD2 via NF-kappaB activation. DMBT1 is strongly up-regulated in the inflamed intestinal mucosa of Crohn's disease patients with wild-type, but not with mutant NOD2. We show that DMBT1 inhibits cytoinvasion of Salmonella enterica and LPS- and muramyl dipeptide-induced NF-kappaB activation and cytokine secretion in vitro. Thus, DMBT1 may play an important role in the first line of mucosal defense conferring immune exclusion of bacterial cell wall components. Dysregulated intestinal DMBT1 expression due to mutations in the NOD2/CARD15 gene may be part of the complex pathophysiology of barrier dysfunction in Crohn's disease.     

Absolute configuration of the creatonotines and callimorphines, two classes of arctiid-specific pyrrolizidine alkaloids

Arctiids which as larvae sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) from their food plants are known to synthesize insect-specific PAs by esterifying necine bases derived from plant PAs with necic acids of insect origin. There are two classes of insect PAs, the creatonotines and the callimorphines. The creatonotines contain as necic acids either 2-hydroxy-3-methylbutyric acid (creatonotine A) or 2-hydroxy-3-methylpentanoic acid (creatonotine B). The three known callimorphines contain 2-hydroxy-2-methylbutanoic acid whose hydroxyl group can be either free (deacetylcallimorphine) or acetylated (callimorphine) or propionylated (homocallimorphine). Insect PAs are assumed to play an important role in the recycling of plant derived necine bases and the processing by trans-esterification of PA monoesters that cannot be directly transmitted to the insect's pupal and adult life-stages. The absolute configuration of the insect-specific necic acids was elucidated in the context of the suggested role of the insect PAs as insect-made mimics of plant monoester PAs of the lycopsamine type. For this purpose all needed stereoisomers were synthesized and a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method was established that allows the enantioselective separation and assignment of the stereochemistry of all insect specific necic acids as their methyl esters. The method could also be applied to the GC-MS analysis of the intact alkaloids which were hydrolyzed during injection and converted into their methyl esters. Analysis of the creatonotines and callimorphines isolated from the polyphagous arctiids Estigmene acrea and Grammia geneura that were fed with pure PAs and defined PA mixtures revealed the following absolute configuration: the callimorphines and creatonotine A were present in 2'R configuration, whereas creatonotine B was found as mixture of (2'R, 3'S)- and (2'S, 3'S)-stereoisomers. The ratio of 2'S to 2'R was extremely variable ranging from 98% S to 94% R. The cause of the lack of stereospecificity is discussed particularly in respect of a possible epimerization of the hydroxyl group at C-2' in analogy to the known epimerization at C-3' of plant acquired PAs of the lycopsamine type.     

RUN and FYVE domain–containing protein 4 enhances autophagy and lysosome tethering in response to Interleukin-4

Autophagy is a key degradative pathway coordinated by external cues, including starvation, oxidative stress, or pathogen detection. Rare are the molecules known to contribute mechanistically to the regulation of autophagy and expressed specifically in particular environmental contexts or in distinct cell types. Here, we unravel the role of RUN and FYVE domain–containing protein 4 (RUFY4) as a positive molecular regulator of macroautophagy in primary dendritic cells (DCs). We show that exposure to interleukin-4 (IL-4) during DC differentiation enhances autophagy flux through mTORC1 regulation and RUFY4 induction, which in turn actively promote LC3 degradation, Syntaxin 17–positive autophagosome formation, and lysosome tethering. Enhanced autophagy boosts endogenous antigen presentation by MHC II and allows host control of Brucella abortus replication in IL-4–treated DCs and in RUFY4-expressing cells. RUFY4 is therefore the first molecule characterized to date that promotes autophagy and influences endosome dynamics in a subset of immune cells.     

Differential effects of cyclophosphamide and mycophenolate mofetil on cellular and serological parameters in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus

IntroductionDisease activity and therapy show an impact on cellular and serological parameters in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). This study was performed to compare the influence of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and cyclophosphamide (CYC) therapy on these parameters in patients with flaring, organ-threatening disease.MethodsSLE patients currently receiving CYC (n = 20), MMF (n = 25) or no immunosuppressive drugs (n = 22) were compared using a cross-sectional design. Median disease activity and daily corticosteroid dose were similar in these treatment groups. Concurrent medication, organ manifestations, and disease activity were recorded, and cellular and serological parameters were determined by routine diagnostic tests or flow cytometric analysis. In addition follow-up data were obtained from different sets of patients (CYC n = 24; MMF n = 23).ResultsAlthough both drugs showed a significant effect on disease activity and circulating B cell subsets, only MMF reduced circulating plasmablasts and plasma cells as well as circulating free light chains within three months of induction therapy. Neither MMF nor CYC were able to reduce circulating memory B cells. MMF lowered IgA levels more markedly than CYC. We did not observe a significant difference in the reduction of IgG levels or anti-dsDNA antibodies comparing patients receiving MMF or CYC. In contrast to MMF, induction therapy with CYC was associated with a significant increase of circulating CD8+ effector T cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs) after three months.ConclusionsThe results indicate differences between MMF and CYC with regard to the mechanism of action. MMF, but not CYC, treatment leads to a fast and enduring reduction of surrogate markers of B cell activation, such as circulating plasmablasts, plasma cells and free light chains but a comparable rate of hypogammaglobulinemia.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13075-015-0603-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Rapid evolution of coral proteins responsible for interaction with the environment

BACKGROUND: Corals worldwide are in decline due to climate change effects (e.g., rising seawater temperatures), pollution, and exploitation. The ability of corals to cope with these stressors in the long run depends on the evolvability of the underlying genetic networks and proteins, which remain largely unknown. A genome-wide scan for positively selected genes between related coral species can help to narrow down the search space considerably. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We screened a set of 2,604 putative orthologs from EST-based sequence datasets of the coral species Acropora millepora and Acropora palmata to determine the fraction and identity of proteins that may experience adaptive evolution. 7% of the orthologs show elevated rates of evolution. Taxonomically-restricted (i.e. lineage-specific) genes show a positive selection signature more frequently than genes that are found across many animal phyla. The class of proteins that displayed elevated evolutionary rates was significantly enriched for proteins involved in immunity and defense, reproduction, and sensory perception. We also found elevated rates of evolution in several other functional groups such as management of membrane vesicles, transmembrane transport of ions and organic molecules, cell adhesion, and oxidative stress response. Proteins in these processes might be related to the endosymbiotic relationship corals maintain with dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium. CONCLUSION/RELEVANCE: This study provides a birds-eye view of the processes potentially underlying coral adaptation, which will serve as a foundation for future work to elucidate the rates, patterns, and mechanisms of corals' evolutionary response to global climate change.