Roles of l-serine and sphingolipid synthesis in brain development and neuronal survival

Sphingolipids represent a class of membrane lipids that contain a hydrophobic ceramide chain as its common backbone structure. Sphingolipid synthesis requires two simple components: l-serine and palmitoyl CoA. Although l-serine is classified as a non-essential amino acid, an external supply of l-serine is essential for the synthesis of sphingolipids and phosphatidylserine (PS) in particular types of central nervous system (CNS) neurons. l-Serine is also essential for these neurons to undergo neuritogenesis and to survive. Biochemical analysis has shown that l-serine is synthesized from glucose and released by astrocytes but not by neurons, which is the major reason why this amino acid is an essential amino acid for neurons. Biosynthesis of membrane lipids, such as sphingolipids, PS, and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), in neurons is completely dependent on this astrocytic factor. Recent advances in lipid biology research using transgenic mice have demonstrated that synthesis of endogenous l-serine and neuronal sphingolipids is essential for brain development. In this review, we discuss the metabolic system that coordinates sphingolipid synthesis with the l-serine synthetic pathway between neurons and glia. We also discuss the crucial roles of the metabolic conversion of l-serine to sphingolipids in neuronal development and survival. Human diseases associated with serine and sphingolipid biosynthesis are also discussed.     

Lilliputians get into the limelight: Novel class of small peptide genes in morphogenesis

Generally, bioactive small peptides are derived from precursors with signal sequences at their N-terminal ends, which undergo modification and proteolysis through a secretory pathway. By contrast, small peptides encoded in short open reading frames (sORF) lack signaling sequences and therefore are released into the cytoplasm, which may result in their having functions distinct from those of secreted peptides. Several small peptides encoded by sORF are involved in the morphogenesis of multicellular organisms. POLARIS, ROTUNDIFOLIA4, and Enod40 are plant peptides that are involved, respectively, in root formation, leaf shape control, and cortical cell division during nodule formation. Brick1 / HSPC300 is an evolutionarily conserved component of the actin reorganization complex. polished rice / tarsal-less and mille-pattes encode related small peptides that are required for epithelial morphogenesis in Drosophila and segmentation in Tribolium . There are only a few known examples of small peptides encoded by sORF, and their molecular functions are still largely obscure. Nevertheless, an increasing number of sORF genes is being identified, and further research should reveal their roles in novel molecular mechanisms underlying developmental events.     

Effect of seawater temperature on the productivity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Laminaria japonica</Emphasis> in the Uwa Sea,southern Japan

Recent studies on global climate change report that increase in seawater temperature leads to coastal ecosystem change, including coral bleaching in the tropic. In order to assess the effect of increased seawater temperature on a temperate coastal ecosystem, we studied the inter-annual variation in productivity of Laminaria japonica using long-term oceanographic observations for the Uwa Sea, southern Japan. The annual productivity estimates for L. japonica were 2.7 ± 2.5 (mean ± SD) kg wet wt. m⁻¹ (length of rope) (2003/2004), 1.0 ± 0.6 kg wet wt. m⁻¹ (2004/2005) and 12.1 ± 12.5 kg wet wt. m⁻¹ (2005/2006). Our previous study using the same methodology at the same locality reported that the productivity was estimated for the 2001/2002 (33.3 ± 15.2 kg wet wt. m⁻¹) and 2002/2003 (34.0 ± 8.7 kg wet wt. m⁻¹) seasons. Productivity in 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 was significantly lower than in years 2001/2002, 2002/2003 and 2005/2006. A comparison of oceanographic conditions among the 5 years revealed the presence of threshold seawater temperature effects. When the average seawater temperature during the first 45 days of each experiment exceeded 15.5°C, productivity was reduced to about 10 % of that in cooler years. Moreover the analysis of growth and erosion rates indicates that when the seawater temperature was over 17.5°C, erosion rate exceeded growth rate. Thus, an increase of seawater temperature of just 1°C during winter drastically reduces the productivity of L. japonica in the Uwa Sea.     

Neuron-specific recombination by Cre recombinase inserted into the murine tau locus

To determine the neuronal function of genes in vivo, the neuron-specific deletion of a target gene in animals is required. Tau, a microtubule-associated protein, is expressed abundantly in neurons but scarcely in glias and other tissues. Therefore, to generate mice that express Cre recombinase in neurons, we inserted Cre recombinase into the tau locus. By crossing these tau-Cre mice with ROSA26 lacZ reporter mice, we observed Cre recombinase activity in the neurons from most of the central nervous system, but not in glias nor in non-neuronal tissues. This neuronal-specific activity appeared during embryogenesis. We further crossed tau-Cre mice with rab8 ‘floxed’ mice, and showed that the recombination was nearly complete in the brain, but incomplete or non-detectable in other tissues. Thus, tau-Cre knockin mouse is a useful tool for studying the neuronal function of a gene in vivo.     

Nramp1 modifies the fusion of Salmonella typhimurium-containing vacuoles with cellular endomembranes in macrophages.

Salmonella survive and replicate within mammalian cells by becoming secluded within specialized membrane-bound vacuoles inaccessible to the host defense mechanisms. Delayed acidification of the vacuole and its incomplete fusion with lysosomes have been implicated in intracellular Salmonella survival. Nramp1 confers to macrophages resistance to a variety of intracellular pathogens, including Salmonella, but its precise mode of action is not understood. We investigated whether Nramp1 affects the maturation and acidification of Salmonella-containing vacuoles (SCV). A mouse-derived macrophage line (RAW/Nramp1(-)) devoid of Nramp1 and therefore susceptible to infection was compared with isogenic clones stably transfected with Nramp1 (RAW/Nramp1(+)). Intravacuolar pH, measured in situ, was similar in Nramp1-expressing and -deficient cells. SCV acquired LAMP1 and fused with preloaded fluid-phase markers in both cell types. In contrast, although few vacuoles in RAW/Nramp1(-) acquired mannose 6-phosphate receptor, many more contained M6PR in RAW/Nramp1(+) cells. Shortly after closure, SCV in RAW/Nramp1(-) became inaccessible to extracellular markers, suggesting inability to fuse with newly formed endosomes. Expression of Nramp1 markedly increased the access to extracellularly added markers. We propose that Nramp1 counteracts the ability of Salmonella to become secluded in a compartment that limits access of bactericidal agents, allowing the normal degradative pathway of the macrophage to proceed.     

A Dual Role for Corneal Dendritic Cells in Herpes Simplex Keratitis: Local Suppression of Corneal Damage and Promotion of Systemic Viral Dissemination

The cornea is the shield to the foreign world and thus, a primary site for peripheral infections. However, transparency and vision are incompatible with inflammation and scarring that may result from infections. Thus, the cornea is required to perform a delicate balance between fighting infections and preserving vision. To date, little is known about the specific role of antigen-presenting cells in viral keratitis. In this study, utilizing an established murine model of primary acute herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 keratitis, we demonstrate that primary HSV keratitis results in increased conventional dendritic cells (cDCs) and macrophages within 24 hours after infection. Local depletion of cDCs in CD11c-DTR mice by subconjuntival diphtheria toxin injections, led to increased viral proliferation, and influx of inflammatory cells, resulting in increased scarring and clinical keratitis. In addition, while HSV infection resulted in significant corneal nerve destruction, local depletion of cDCs resulted in a much more severe loss of corneal nerves. Further, local cDC depletion resulted in decreased corneal nerve infection, and subsequently decreased and delayed systemic viral transmission in the trigeminal ganglion and draining lymph node, resulting in decreased mortality of mice. In contrast, sham depletion or depletion of macrophages through local injection of clodronate liposomes had neither a significant impact on the cornea, nor an effect on systemic viral transmission. In conclusion, we demonstrate that corneal cDCs may play a primary role in local corneal defense during viral keratitis and preserve vision, at the cost of inducing systemic viral dissemination, leading to increased mortality.