Unexpected Relationships and Inbreeding in HapMap Phase III Populations

Correct annotation of the genetic relationships between samples is essential for population genomic studies, which could be biased by errors or omissions. To this end, we used identity-by-state (IBS) and identity-by-descent (IBD) methods to assess genetic relatedness of individuals within HapMap phase III data. We analyzed data from 1,397 individuals across 11 ethnic populations. Our results support previous studies (Pemberton et al., 2010; Kyriazopoulou-Panagiotopoulou et al., 2011) assessing unknown relatedness present within this population. Additionally, we present evidence for 1,657 novel pairwise relationships across 9 populations. Surprisingly, significant Cotterman''s coefficients of relatedness K1 (IBD1) values were detected between pairs of known parents. Furthermore, significant K2 (IBD2) values were detected in 32 previously annotated parent-child relationships. Consistent with a hypothesis of inbreeding, regions of homozygosity (ROH) were identified in the offspring of related parents, of which a subset overlapped those reported in previous studies (Gibson et al. 2010; Johnson et al. 2011). In total, we inferred 28 inbred individuals with ROH that overlapped areas of relatedness between the parents and/or IBD2 sharing at a different genomic locus between a child and a parent. Finally, 8 previously annotated parent-child relationships had unexpected K0 (IBD0) values (resulting from a chromosomal abnormality or genotype error), and 10 previously annotated second-degree relationships along with 38 other novel pairwise relationships had unexpected IBD2 (indicating two separate paths of recent ancestry). These newly described types of relatedness may impact the outcome of previous studies and should inform the design of future studies relying on the HapMap Phase III resource.     

Optimising Immunogenicity with Viral Vectors: Mixing MVA and HAdV-5 Expressing the Mycobacterial Antigen Ag85A in a Single Injection

The Bacillus Calmette - Guerin (BCG) vaccine provides a critical but limited defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb). More than 60 years after the widespread introduction of BCG, there is an urgent need for a better vaccine. A large body of pre-clinical research continues to support ongoing clinical trials to assess whether viral vectors expressing M.tb antigens that are shared by BCG and M.tb, can be used alongside BCG to enhance protection. A major focus involves using multiple unique viral vectors to limit anti-vector immunity and thereby enhance responses to the insert antigen delivered. The successful introduction of viral vector vaccines to target M.tb and other pathogens will be reliant on reducing the costs when using multiple vectors and inhibiting the development of unwanted anti-vector responses that interfere with the response to insert antigen. This study examines methods to reduce the logistical costs of vaccination by mixing different viral vectors that share the same insert antigen in one vaccine; and whether combining different viral vectors reduces anti-vector immunity to improve immunogenicity to the insert antigen. Here we show that a homologous prime-boost regimen with a mixture of MVA (Modified Vaccinia virus Ankara) and Ad5 (human adenovirus type 5) vectors both expressing Ag85A in a single vaccine preparation is able to reduce anti-vector immunity, compared with a homologous prime-boost regimen with either vector alone. However, the level of immunogenicity induced by the homologous mixture remained comparable to that induced with single viral vectors and was less immunogenic than a heterologous Ad5 prime-MVA-boost regimen. These findings advance the understanding of how anti-vector immunity maybe reduced in viral vector vaccination regimens. Furthermore, an insight is provided to the impact on vaccine immunogenicity from altering vaccination methods to reduce the logistical demands of using separate vaccine preparations in the field.     

Levels of connectivity between longnose skate (Dipturus oxyrinchus) in the Mediterranean Sea and the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean

Sequencing of a partial region of the mitochondrial control region has revealed no shared haplotypes between longnose skate (Dipturus oxyrinchus L.) sampled in the north-eastern Atlantic (Norway and Rockall) and those sampled in the Mediterranean (Mallorca). Bayesian estimation of the migration rate suggests little, if any, gene flow occurs between the regions and that the populations separated 20,000?years ago. These conclusions provide a genetic basis for long-standing observations, based on egg capsule and adult size, that longnose skate in the Mediterranean may be genetically isolated from other stocks. This result has important conservation implications for the threatened longnose skate.     

Integration of New Males into Four Social Groups of Tufted Capuchins (Cebus apella)

We examined how aggressive, affiliative, and sexual behavior function to integrate male capuchins (Cebus apella) into a new social group. Nine males were exchanged among four social groups. We performed instantaneous scans and all-occurrence sampling during baseline, introduction, and follow-up periods. The study included three different introduction situations: 1) males familiar to one another were introduced to a group with no other adult male, 2) males unfamiliar to one another were introduced to a group with no other adult male, and 3) males familiar to one another were introduced to a group with an existing elderly, resident male. Severe aggression occurred in situations 2 and 3, but the introductions were peaceful in situation 1. In all cases proceptive females were among the first individuals to affiliate with the males, and males did not appear to compete for access to proceptive females. Following their period of proceptivity, the females that had cycled remained preferred social partners for the males. Immature animals also quickly affiliated with the new males, and the males tolerated the attention from immatures. Affiliative relationships between the males and nonproceptive females developed slowly, and while male-female aggression was mild, aggression among adult males (familiar and unfamiliar) had the potential to be severe.     

Duplication and paralog sorting of RPB2 and RPB1 genes in core eudicots

RPB1 and RPB2, which encode the largest and second largest subunits of RNA polymerase II, respectively, are essential single copy genes in fungi, animals and most plants. Two paralogs of the RPB2 gene have been found in some groups of angioperms [Oxelman, B., Yoshikawa, N., McConaughy, B.L., Luo, J., Denton, A.L., Hall, B.D., 2004. RPB2 gene phylogeny in flowering plants, with particular emphasis on asterids. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 32, 462-479]. Here, we report the results of experiments designed to identify the evolutionary origin of the RPB2 duplicate copies. Through careful sampling and phylogenetic analysis, we were able to construct the RPB2 gene tree in angiosperms and infer the phylogenetic positions of the gene duplication and gene loss events that occurred. Our study shows that an RPB2 gene duplication occurred early in core eudicot evolution, at or near the time of the Buxaceae/Trochodendraceae divergence. Subsequently, multiple gene duplication and paralog sorting events happened independently in different core eudicot taxa. Differential expression of the two RPB2 gene paralogs may explain the preservation of both paralogs in the asterids. One gene (RPB2-i) accounts for most of the RPB2 mRNA made in the flower organs while the other gene (RPB2-d) is predominantly used in the vegetative tissues. We also found two paralogs of the RPB1 gene in some core eudicot species. The RPB1 gene duplication occurred before core eudicot divergence, around the time of RPB2 gene duplication. Several independent RPB1 paralog sorting events happened in different core eudicot taxa; their occurrence was independent of the RPB2 paralog sorting events. Our results suggest that a polyploidization event happened at or near the time of the Buxaceae/Trochodendraceae divergence. We propose that this polyploidization and the partial diploidization processes thereafter may have been the driving force of core eudicot radiation.     

Platelets do not express the oxidized or reduced forms of tissue factor

Background

Expression of tissue factor (TF) antigen and activity in platelets is controversial and dependent upon the laboratory and reagents used. Two forms of TF were described: an oxidized functional form and a reduced nonfunctional form that is converted to the active form through the formation of an allosteric disulfide. This study tests the hypothesis that the discrepancies regarding platelet TF expression are due to differential expression of the two forms.

Methods

Specific reagents that recognize both oxidized and reduced TF were used in flow cytometry of unactivated and activated platelets and western blotting of whole platelet lysates. TF-dependent activity measurements were used to confirm the results.

Results

Western blotting analyses of placental TF demonstrated that, in contrast to anti-TF#5, which is directed against the oxidized form of TF, a sheep anti-human TF polyclonal antibody recognizes both the reduced and oxidized forms. Flow cytometric analyses demonstrated that the sheep antibody did not react with the surface of unactivated platelets or platelets activated with thrombin receptor agonist peptide, PAR-1. This observation was confirmed using biotinylated active site-blocked factor (F)VIIa: no binding was observed. Likewise, neither form of TF was detected by western blotting of whole platelet lysates with sheep anti-hTF. Consistent with these observations, no FXa or FIXa generation by FVIIa was detected at the surface of these platelets. Similarly, no TF-related activity was observed in whole blood using thromboelastography.

Conclusion and significance

Platelets from healthy donors do not express either oxidized (functional) or reduced (nonfunctional) forms of TF.     

The Value of Artificial Stimuli in Behavioral Research: Making the Case for Egg Rejection Studies in Avian Brood Parasitism

Experimentation is at the heart of classical and modern behavioral ecology research. The manipulation of natural cues allows us to establish causation between aspects of the environment, both internal and external to organisms, and their effects on animals' behaviors. In recognition systems research, including the quest to understand the coevolution of sensory cues and decision rules underlying the rejection of foreign eggs by hosts of avian brood parasites, artificial stimuli have been used extensively, but not without controversy. In response to repeated criticism about the value of artificial stimuli, we describe four potential benefits of using them in egg recognition research, two each at the proximate and ultimate levels of analysis: (1) the standardization of stimuli for developmental studies and (2) the disassociation of correlated traits of egg phenotypes used for sensory discrimination, as well as (3) the estimation of the strength of selection on parasitic egg mimicry and (4) the establishment of the evolved limits of sensory and cognitive plasticity. We also highlight constraints of the artificial stimulus approach and provide a specific test of whether responses to artificial cues can accurately predict responses to natural cues. Artificial stimuli have a general value in ethological research beyond research in brood parasitism and may be especially critical in field studies involving the manipulation of a single parameter, where other, confounding variables are difficult or impossible to control experimentally or statistically.