Defending the end zone: Studying the players involved in protecting chromosome ends

The linear nature of eukaryotic chromosomes leaves natural DNA ends susceptible to triggering DNA damage responses. Telomeres are specialized nucleoprotein structures that comprise the “end zone” of chromosomes. Besides having specialized sequences and structures, there are six resident proteins at telomeres that play prominent roles in protecting chromosome ends. In this review, we discuss this team of proteins, termed shelterin, and how it is involved in regulating DNA damage signaling, repair and replication at telomeres.     

The cellular trafficking of the secretory proprotein convertase PCSK9 and its dependence on the LDLR

Mutations in the proprotein convertase PCSK9 gene are associated with autosomal dominant familial hyper- or hypocholesterolemia. These phenotypes are caused by a gain or loss of function of proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin 9 (PCSK9) to elicit the degradation of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) protein. Herein, we asked whether the subcellular localization of wild-type PCSK9 or mutants of PCSK9 and the LDLR would provide insight into the mechanism of PCSK9-dependent LDLR degradation. We show that the LDLR is the dominant partner in regulating the cellular trafficking of PCSK9. In cells lacking the LDLR, PCSK9 localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In cells expressing the LDLR, PCSK9 sorted to post-ER compartments (i.e. endosomes in cell lines and Golgi apparatus in primary hepatocytes), where it colocalized with the LDLR. In cell lines, PCSK9 also colocalized with the LDLR at the cell surface, requiring the presence of the C-terminal Cys/His-rich domain of PCSK9. We provide evidence that PCSK9 promotes the degradation of the LDLR by an endocytic mechanism, as small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of the clathrin heavy chain reduced the functional activity of PCSK9. We also compared the subcellular localization of natural mutants of PCSK9 with that of the wild-type enzyme in human hepatic (HuH7) cells. Whereas the mutants associated with hypercholesterolemia (S127R, F216L and R218S) localized to endosomes/lysosomes, those associated with hypocholesterolemia did not reach this compartment. We conclude that the sorting of PCSK9 to the cell surface and endosomes is required for PCSK9 to fully promote LDLR degradation and that retention in the ER prevents this activity. Mutations that affect this transport can lead to hyper- or hypocholesterolemia.     

Natural variation in life history and aging phenotypes is associated with mitochondrial DNA deletion frequency in Caenorhabditis briggsae

Background  

Mutations that impair mitochondrial functioning are associated with a variety of metabolic and age-related disorders. A barrier to rigorous tests of the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in aging processes has been the lack of model systems with relevant, naturally occurring mitochondrial genetic variation. Toward the goal of developing such a model system, we studied natural variation in life history, metabolic, and aging phenotypes as it relates to levels of a naturally-occurring heteroplasmic mitochondrial ND5 deletion recently discovered to segregate among wild populations of the soil nematode, Caenorhabditis briggsae. The normal product of ND5 is a central component of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and integral to cellular energy metabolism.     

Basal insulin, glucagon, and growth hormone replacement

Conclusions drawn from the pancreatic (or islet) clamp technique (suppression of endogenous insulin, glucagon, and growth hormone secretion with somatostatin and replacement of basal hormone levels by intravenous infusion) are critically dependent on the biological appropriateness of the selected doses of the replaced hormones. To assess the appropriateness of representative doses we infused saline alone, insulin (initially 0.20 mU.kg(-1).min(-1)) alone, glucagon (1.0 ng.kg(-1).min(-1)) alone, and growth hormone (3.0 ng.kg(-1).min(-1)) alone intravenously for 4 h in 13 healthy individuals. That dose of insulin raised plasma insulin concentrations approximately threefold, suppressed glucose production, and drove plasma glucose concentrations down to subphysiological levels (65 +/- 3 mg/dl, P < 0.0001 vs. saline), resulting in nearly complete suppression of insulin secretion (P < 0.0001) and stimulation of glucagon (P = 0.0059) and epinephrine (P = 0.0009) secretion. An insulin dose of 0.15 mU.kg(-1).min(-1) caused similar effects, but a dose of 0.10 mU.kg(-1).min(-1) did not. The glucagon and growth hormone infusions did not alter plasma glucose levels or those of glucoregulatory factors. Thus, insulin "replacement" doses of 0.20 and even 0.15 mU.kg(-1).min(-1) are excessive, and conclusions drawn from the pancreatic clamp technique using such doses may need to be reassessed.     

Probing the activation site of ribonuclease L with new N6-substituted 2',5'-adenylate trimers

2-5A trimer [5'-monophosphoryladenylyl(2'-5')adenylyl(2'-5')adenosine] activates RNase L. While the 5'-terminal and 2'-terminal adenosine N(6)-amino groups play a key role in binding to and activation of RNase L, the exocyclic amino function of the second adenylate (from the 5'-terminus) plays a relatively minor role in 2-5A's biological activity. To probe the available space proximal to the amino function of the central adenylate of 2-5A trimer during binding to RNase L, a variety of substituents were placed at that position. To accomplish this, the convertible building block 5'-O-dimethoxytrityl-3'-O-(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)-6-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)thioinosine 2'-(2-cyanoethylN,N-diisopropylphosphoramidite) was prepared as a synthon to introduce 6-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)thioinosine into the middle position of the 2-5A trimer during automated synthesis. Post-synthetic treatment with aqueous amines transformed the (2,4-dinitrophenyl)thioinosine into N(6)-substituted adenosines. Assays of these modified trimers for their ability to bind and activate RNase L showed that activation activity could be retained, albeit with some sacrifice compared to unmodified p5'A2'p5'A2'p5'A. Thus, the spatial domain about this N(6)-amino function could be available for modifications to enhance the biological potency of 2-5A analogues and to ligate 2-5A to targeting vehicles such as antisense molecules.     

Synthesis of a peptidocalix[4]arene library and identification of compounds with hydrolytic activity

A 120 member library of peptidocalix[4]arenes was synthesized and screened for catalysis of the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl acetate. His-Ser-His-calix[4]arene was found to catalyze this reaction with v(0)=3.24 x 10(-8)M/s, an increase of 1520% above background and 30% above the tripeptide (His-Ser-His) alone.     

Exercise responsive genes measured in peripheral blood of women with chronic fatigue syndrome and matched control subjects

Background  

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is defined by debilitating fatigue that is exacerbated by physical or mental exertion. To search for markers of CFS-associated post-exertional fatigue, we measured peripheral blood gene expression profiles of women with CFS and matched controls before and after exercise challenge.     

Genetic variation in C57BL/6 ES cell lines and genetic instability in the Bruce4 C57BL/6 ES cell line

Genetically modified mouse strains derived from embryonic stem (ES) cells are powerful tools for gene function analysis. ES cells from the C57BL/6 mouse strain are not widely used to generate mouse models despite the advantage of a defined genetic background. We assessed genetic variation in six such ES cell lines with 275 SSLP markers. Compared to C57BL/6, Bruce4 differed at 34 SSLP markers and had significant heterozygosity on three chromosomes. BL/6#3 and Dale1 ES cell lines differed at only 3 SSLP makers. The C2 and WB6d ES cell lines differed at 6 SSLP markers. It is important to compare the efficiency of producing mouse models with available C57BL/6 ES cells relative to standard 129 mouse strain ES cells. We assessed genetic stability (the tendency of cells to become aneuploid) in 110 gene-targeted ES cell clones from the most widely used C57BL/6 ES cell line, Bruce4, and 710 targeted 129 ES cell clones. Bruce4 clones were more likely to be aneuploid and unsuitable for ES cell-mouse chimera production. Despite their tendency to aneuploidy and consequent inefficiency, use of Bruce4 ES cells can be valuable for models requiring behavioral studies and other mouse models that benefit from a defined C57BL/6 background. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.