Increase in glutamate-induced neurotoxicity by activated astrocytes involves stimulation of protein kinase C

Activation of astrocytes is a common feature of neurological disorders, but the importance of this phenomenon for neuronal outcome is not fully understood. Treatment of mixed hippocampal cultures of neurones and astrocytes from day 2-4 in vitro (DIV 2-4) with 1 micro m cytosine arabinofuranoside (AraC) caused an activation of astrocytes as detected by a stellate morphology and a 10-fold increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) level compared with vehicle-treated cultures. After DIV 12, we determined 43% and 97% damaged neurones 18 h after the exposure to glutamate (1 mm, 1 h) in cultures treated with vehicle and AraC, respectively. Dose-response curves were different with a higher sensitivity to glutamate in cultures treated with AraC (EC50 = 0.01 mm) than with vehicle (EC50 = 0.12 mm). The susceptibility of neurones to 1 mm glutamate did not correlate with the percentage of astrocytes and was insensitive to an inhibition of glutamate uptake. In cultures treated with vehicle and AraC, glutamate-induced neurotoxicity was mediated through stimulation of the NR1-NR2B subtype of NMDA receptors, because it was blocked by the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 and the NR1-NR2B selective receptor antagonist ifenprodil. Protein levels of the NR2A and NR2B subunits of NMDA receptor were similar in cultures treated with vehicle or AraC. AraC-induced changes in glutamate-induced neurotoxicity were mimicked by activation of protein kinase C (PKC), whereas neuronal susceptibility to glutamate was reduced in cultures depleted of PKC and treated with AraC suggesting that the increase in glutamate toxicity by activated astrocytes involves activation of PKC.     

Survey of factors determining the circularly polarised luminescence of macrocyclic lanthanide complexes in solution

The development of emissive lanthanide complexes as structural or reactive probes to signal changes in their local chiral or ionic environment has been inhibited by the lack of understanding of correlating structural and electronic spectral information. The definition of relatively rigid enantiopure macrocyclic lanthanide complexes, whose inter- and intramolecular exchange dynamics have been defined, offers scope for remedying this situation. Chiral axially symmetric lanthanide complexes in solution give rise to large emission dissymmetry values (g(em)) in CPL spectra. The sign and magnitude of g(em) are determined by the degree of twist about the principal axis, which is predicted to be a maximum at +/-22.5 degrees, and by the site symmetry and local ligand field. In particular, the polarisability of the ligand donor atoms, especially for any axial donor, is very important. Examples of each case are discussed for structurally related cationic Eu(III) complexes.     

Continuous decomposition of sporopollenin from pollen of Typha angustifolia L. by acidic methanolysis

Sporopollenin from the pollen of Typha angustifolia L. was exposed to a series of 36 subsequent acidic methanolysis procedures. The remaining decomposition products were investigated using several spectroscopic methods including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), solid state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (13C-CPMAS-NMR) and X-ray photoelectron spectrometry (XPS). Substantial weight losses of the sporopollenin material occur after each acidic methanolysis step, while FT-IR and 13C-CPMAS-NMR spectra display no noticeable differences after 12, 24 and 36 steps. These findings are interpreted as a hint that the sporopollenin polymer has a uniform composition, i.e. relatively small monomer moieties of similar primary structure are present. Moreover, the weight losses account for the presence of substantial amounts of ether linkages in the sporopollenin polymer.     

Binding of a C-terminal fragment (residues 369 to 435) of vitamin D-binding protein to actin

The vitamin D-binding protein (DBP) binds to monomeric actin with high affinity. The variation in DBP isoforms is due to genetic polymorphism and varying glycosylation. To obtain a homogeneous preparation, the cDNA for human DBP and truncations thereof were cloned and various systems were applied for heterologous bacterial and yeast expression. The full-length protein and the N- and C-terminal halves of DBP remained insoluble probably because the protein did not fold to its native three-dimensional structure due to formation of accidental intra- and inter-molecular disulfide bonds during expression in bacteria or yeast. This problem was overcome by cloning of a C-terminal fragment comprising residues 369 to 435 that did not contain disulfide bonds and was completely soluble. Binding of the C-terminal fragment to monomeric actin was demonstrated by comigration with actin during native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and surface plasmon resonance, however, at considerably lower affinity than full-length DBP. This suggests that in addition to the C-terminal amino acid sequence other parts (amino acid residues or sugar moieties) of DBP participate in actin binding. The C-terminal fragment was found to inhibit denaturation of actin and to decrease the rate of actin polymerisation both at the barbed and at the pointed end in a concentration-dependent manner. According to a quantitative analysis of the polymerisation kinetics, association of actin monomers to nucleate filaments was not prevented by binding of the C-terminal fragment to actin. These data suggest that the sites on the surface of actin that are involved in actin nucleation and elongation are different.     

Purification of full-length recombinant human and rat type 1 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases with retained oxidoreductase activities

11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) is a membrane-bound glycoprotein localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. This enzyme has a key role in regulating local tissue glucocorticoid concentration, acting in vivo predominantly as an oxidoreductase. Previous attempts to purify the native enzyme have yielded a protein without reductase activity. To facilitate detailed studies on its structure and regulation, we have developed a method to purify the full-length human and rat 11beta-HSD1 with retention of their natural oxidoreductase activities. This procedure involved recombinant expression of these histidine-tagged enzymes in the yeast Pichia pastoris; large-scale culturing in a fermentor; and single-step purification by metal affinity chromatography. Both enzymes were 90-95% pure and exhibited dehydrogenase and reductase activities with K(M) values in agreement with those reported in the literature.     

In situ atomic force microscopy of partially demineralized human dentin collagen fibrils

Dentin collagen fibrils were studied in situ by atomic force microscopy (AFM). New data on size distribution and the axial repeat distance of hydrated and dehydrated collagen type I fibrils are presented. Polished dentin disks from third molars were partially demineralized with citric acid, leaving proteins and the collagen matrix. At this stage collagen fibrils were not resolved by AFM, but after exposure to NaOCl(aq) for 100-240 s, and presumably due to the removal of noncollagenous proteins, individual collagen fibrils and the fibril network of dentin connected to the mineralized substrate were revealed. High-aspect-ratio silicon tips in tapping mode were used to image the soft fibril network. Hydrated fibrils showed three distinct groups of diameters: 100, 91, and 83 nm and a narrow distribution of the axial repeat distance at 67 nm. Dehydration resulted in a broad distribution of the fibril diameters between 75 and 105 nm and a division of the axial repeat distance into three groups at 67, 62, and 57 nm. Subfibrillar features (4 nm) were observed on hydrated and dehydrated fibrils. The gap depth between the thick and thin repeating segments of the fibrils varied from 3 to 7 nm. Phase mode revealed mineral particles on the transition from the gap to the overlap zone of the fibrils. This method appears to be a powerful tool for the analysis of fibrillar collagen structures in calcified tissues and may aid in understanding the differences in collagen affected by chemical treatments or by diseases.     

Cultivation of Mycobacterium bovis BCG in bioreactors

The Mycobacterium bovis BCG vaccine for commercial use is classically produced as surface pellicles by culture on synthetic medium. Under these conditions, reproducibility of the cultures and quality assessment are hampered by slow growth of the bacilli, the formation of bacterial aggregates and a high proportion of dead bacilli after processing and final formulation of the vaccine. Here, we established dispersed cultures of M. bovis BCG in synthetic media in small-scale bioreactors. These cultures allow recording and adjusting of culture parameters and give rise to single bacilli with a high degree of live bacteria. In the murine model, bioreactor-grown M. bovis BCG exhibited slightly stronger replication and persistence than the vaccine produced under the classical conditions. The protective efficacy against challenge with M. tuberculosis was identical for both vaccine preparations.     

A shoot meristem-like organ in animals; monopodial and sympodial growth in Hydrozoa

Thecate Hydrozoa produce stems from which polyps branch off. Similar to plants these stems form in two ways, either in a sympodial or in a monopodial type of growth. In the latter group a terminal organ develops which has similarities to a shoot apical meristem of higher plants: it elongates without a further differentiation. Similar to leaf formation in plants, thecate Hydrozoa produce polyps in a repetitive manner. This process continues during the whole life of the animal and has not yet been found to be limited by internal mechanisms. We studied the monopodially growing thecate Hydrozoon Dynamena pumila and suggest that the stem tip, the apical shoot meristem-like organ, is a polyp primordium hindered to develop into a polyp by the laterally developing polyps.     

In vivo localization of centrin in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been used as a model system to study flagellar assembly, centriole assembly, and cell cycle events. These processes are dynamic. Therefore, protein targeting and protein-protein interactions should be evaluated in vivo. To be able to study dynamic processes in C. reinhardtii in vivo, we have explored the use of the green fluorescent protein (GFP). A construct containing a fusion of centrin and GFP was incorporated into the genome as a single copy. The selected clone shows expression in 25-50% of the cells. Centrin-GFP was targeted in vivo to the nuclear basal body connectors and the distal connecting fibers. At the electron microscopic level, it was also localized to the flagellar transitional regions. EM data of transformants indicate that there are some abnormalities in the centrin-containing structures. The transitional region consists of only the transverse septum or has lesions in the H-piece. The distal connecting fibers are thinner and their characteristic crossbands seem to be incomplete. Deflagellation is not affected since more than 95% of the cells deflagellate. Also basal body segregation is not affected since cells with an abnormal flagellar number were not detected. Functional studies of the centrin-GFP fusion show the characteristic calcium-induced mobility shift in SDS-PAGE. Immunofluorescence revealed that during cell division, centrin-GFP remains associated with the basal bodies. In vivo localization of the fusion protein during cell division shows that in metaphase centrin-GFP appears as two opposing spots located close to the spindle poles. The distance between the spots increases as the cells progress through anaphase and then decreases during telophase. GFP is a useful tool to study dynamic processes in the cytoskeleton of C. reinhardtii.