Molecular basis of bacterial resistance to chloramphenicol and florfenicol

Chloramphenicol (Cm) and its fluorinated derivative florfenicol (Ff) represent highly potent inhibitors of bacterial protein biosynthesis. As a consequence of the use of Cm in human and veterinary medicine, bacterial pathogens of various species and genera have developed and/or acquired Cm resistance. Ff is solely used in veterinary medicine and has been introduced into clinical use in the mid-1990s. Of the Cm resistance genes known to date, only a small number also mediates resistance to Ff. In this review, we present an overview of the different mechanisms responsible for resistance to Cm and Ff with particular focus on the two different types of chloramphenicol acetyltransferases (CATs), specific exporters and multidrug transporters. Phylogenetic trees of the different CAT proteins and exporter proteins were constructed on the basis of a multisequence alignment. Moreover, information is provided on the mobile genetic elements carrying Cm or Cm/Ff resistance genes to provide a basis for the understanding of the distribution and the spread of Cm resistance--even in the absence of a selective pressure imposed by the use of Cm or Ff.     

The association between exposure determined by radiofrequency personal exposimeters and human exposure: A simulation study

The selection of an adequate exposure assessment approach is imperative for the quality of epidemiological studies. The use of personal exposimeters turned out to be a reasonable approach to determine exposure profiles, however, certain limitations regarding the absolute values delivered by the devices have to be considered. Apart from the limited dynamic range, it has to be taken into account that these devices give only an approximation of the exposure due to the influence of the body of the person carrying the exposimeter, the receiver characteristics of the exposimeter, as well as the dependence of the measured value on frequency band, channel, slot configuration, and communication traffic. In this study, the relationship between the field strength measured close to the human body at the location of the exposimeter and the exposure, that is, the field strength at the location of the human body without the human body present, is investigated by numerical means using the Visible Human model as an anatomical phantom. Two different scenarios were chosen: (1) For FM, GSM, and UMTS an urban outdoor scenario was examined that included a transmitting antenna mounted on the roof of one of four buildings at a street crossing, (2) For WLAN an indoor scenario was investigated. For GSM the average degree of underestimation by the exposimeter (relation of the average field levels at the location of the exposimeter to the field level averaged over the volume of the human body without the body present) was 0.76, and for UMTS 0.87; for FM no underestimation was found, the ratio was 1. In the case of WLAN the degree of underestimation was more pronounced, the ratio was 0.64. This study clearly suggests that a careful evaluation of correction factors for different scenarios is needed prior to the definition of the study protocol. It has to be noted that the reference scenario used in this study does not allow for final conclusions on general correction factors. Bioelectromagnetics 31:535–545, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Evolutionary processes,dispersal limitation and climatic history shape current diversity patterns of European dragonflies

We investigated the effects of contemporary and historical factors on the spatial variation of European dragonfly diversity. Specifically, we tested to what extent patterns of endemism and phylogenetic diversity of European dragonfly assemblages are structured by 1) phylogenetic conservatism of thermal adaptations and 2) differences in the ability of post‐glacial recolonization by species adapted to running waters (lotic) and still waters (lentic). We investigated patterns of dragonfly diversity using digital distribution maps and a phylogeny of 122 European dragonfly species, which we constructed by combining taxonomic and molecular data. We calculated total taxonomic distinctiveness and mean pairwise distances across 4192 50 × 50 km equal‐area grid cells as measures of phylogenetic diversity. We compared species richness with corrected weighted endemism and standardized effect sizes of mean pairwise distances or residuals of total taxonomic distinctiveness to identify areas with higher or lower phylogenetic diversity than expected by chance. Broken‐line regression was used to detect breakpoints in diversity–latitude relationships. Dragonfly species richness peaked in central Europe, whereas endemism and phylogenetic diversity decreased from warm areas in the south‐west to cold areas in the north‐east and with an increasing proportion of lentic species. Except for species richness, all measures of diversity were consistently higher in formerly unglaciated areas south of the 0°C isotherm during the Last Glacial Maximum than in formerly glaciated areas. These results indicate that the distributions of dragonfly species in Europe were shaped by both phylogenetic conservatism of thermal adaptations and differences between lentic and lotic species in the ability of post‐glacial recolonization/dispersal in concert with the climatic history of the continent. The complex diversity patterns of European dragonflies provide an example of how integrating climatic and evolutionary history with contemporary ecological data can improve our understanding of the processes driving the geographical variation of biological diversity.     

蜜蜂属六蜂种间MRJP2基因C-端重复序列的比较分析

构建了中华蜜蜂（Apis cerana cerana,中蜂）8日龄工蜂头部cDNA文库,获得了中蜂王浆主蛋白2（major royal jelly protein 2,MRJP2）的全长cDNA序列,该序列长1 605bp,包含一个编码468个氨基酸的开放阅读框（open reading frame,ORF）。在中蜂MRJP2的cDNA序列的C-端,首次发现存在串联重复片段长度多态性（variable numbers of tandem repeat,VNTR）。克隆并测定了蜜蜂属Apis内其他5个种的MRJP2基因的C-端重复序列,结果表明: 在蜜蜂属的其他5个种中,C-端重复片段的核心序列是以碱基高度突变方式而表现出个体之间的多态性,而重复片段长度基本一致。中蜂与西方蜜蜂A. mellifera,大蜜蜂A. dorsata与黑大蜜蜂A. laboriosa,以及小蜜蜂A. florea与黑小蜜蜂A. andreniformis分别形成3个进化枝。中蜂和西方蜜蜂与大蜜蜂和黑大蜜蜂之间的亲缘关系较近,而与小蜜蜂和黑小蜜蜂的亲缘关系较远。     

Multiple stressors on biotic interactions: how climate change and alien species interact to affect pollination

Global change may substantially affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning but little is known about its effects on essential biotic interactions. Since different environmental drivers rarely act in isolation it is important to consider interactive effects. Here, we focus on how two key drivers of anthropogenic environmental change, climate change and the introduction of alien species, affect plant–pollinator interactions. Based on a literature survey we identify climatically sensitive aspects of species interactions, assess potential effects of climate change on these mechanisms, and derive hypotheses that may form the basis of future research. We find that both climate change and alien species will ultimately lead to the creation of novel communities. In these communities certain interactions may no longer occur while there will also be potential for the emergence of new relationships. Alien species can both partly compensate for the often negative effects of climate change but also amplify them in some cases. Since potential positive effects are often restricted to generalist interactions among species, climate change and alien species in combination can result in significant threats to more specialist interactions involving native species.     

The tarantula toxin psalmotoxin 1 inhibits acid-sensing ion channel (ASIC) 1a by increasing its apparent H+ affinity

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are ion channels activated by extracellular protons. They are involved in higher brain functions and perception of pain, taste, and mechanical stimuli. Homomeric ASIC1a is potently inhibited by the tarantula toxin psalmotoxin 1. The mechanism of this inhibition is unknown. Here we show that psalmotoxin 1 inhibits ASIC1a by a unique mechanism: the toxin increases the apparent affinity for H(+) of ASIC1a. Since ASIC1a is activated by H(+) concentrations that are only slightly larger than the resting H(+) concentration, this increase in H(+) affinity is sufficient to shift ASIC1a channels into the desensitized state. As activation of ASIC1a has recently been linked to neurodegeneration associated with stroke, our results suggest chronic desensitization of ASIC1a by a slight increase of its H(+) affinity as a possible way of therapeutic intervention in stroke.     

LC-MS/MS in the Clinical Laboratory – Where to From Here?

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has seen enormous growth in clinical laboratories during the last 10-15 years. It offers analytical specificity superior to that of immunoassays or conventional high performance/pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) for low molecular weight analytes and has higher throughput than gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Drug/Toxicology and Biochemical Genetics/Newborn Screening laboratories were at the vanguard of clinical LC-MS/MS use, but have been eclipsed by Endocrine laboratories. In USA reference/referral laboratories, most steroids and biogenic amines are now assayed by LC-MS/MS, and the technology has started to penetrate into smaller laboratories. Assays for mineralo- and gluco-corticoids and their precursors, sex steroids, metanephrines and 25-hydroxy vitamin D highlight the advantages of LC-MS/MS.However, several limitations of LC-MS/MS have become apparent, centring on the interacting triangle of sensitivity - specificity - throughput. While sample throughput is higher than for conventional HPLC or GC-MS, it lags behind automated immunoassays. Techniques which improve throughput include direct sample injection, LC-multiplexing and samplemultiplexing. Measures to improve specificity and sensitivity include sample clean-up and optimising chromatography to avoid interferences and ion suppression due to sample-matrix components. Next generation instrumentation may offer additional benefits.The next challenge for clinical LC-MS/MS is peptide/protein analysis. The quest for multi-biomarker profiles for various diseases has largely failed, but targeted peptide and protein testing by LC-MS/MS, directed at analytical and clinical questions that need to be answered, is proving highly successful. We anticipate that this will result in similar growth of clinical protein/peptide LC-MS/MS as has been seen for low molecular weight applications.     

Use of an inhibitor to identify members of the hormone-sensitive lipase family

Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) contributes importantly to the mobilization of fatty acids from the triacylglycerols stored in adipocytes, which provide the main source of energy in mammals. On the basis of amino acid sequence alignments and three-dimensional structures, this enzyme was previously found to be a suitable template for defining a family of serine carboxylester hydrolases. In this study, the HSL family members are characterized rather on the basis of their inhibition by 5-methoxy-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-3H-[1,3,4]oxadiazol-2-one (compound 7600). This compound inhibits mammalian HSL as well as other HSL family members, such as EST2 from the thermophilic eubacterium Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius and AFEST from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Archaeoglobus fulgidus. Various carboxylester hydrolases that are not members of the HSL family were found not to be inhibited by compound 7600 under the same experimental conditions. These include nonlipolytic hydrolases such as Torpedo californica acetylcholinesterase and pig liver esterase, as well as lipolytic hydrolases such as human pancreatic lipase, dog gastric lipase, Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase, and Bacillus subtilis LipA. When vinyl esters were used as substrates, the residual activity of HSL, AFEST, and EST2 decreased with an increase in compound 7600 concentration in the incubation mixture. The inhibitor concentration at which the enzyme activity decreased to 50% after incubation for 5 min was 70, 20, and 15 nM with HSL, AFEST, and EST2, respectively. Treating EST2 and AFEST with the inhibitor resulted in an increase in the molecular mass, as established by performing matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis. This increase in the molecular mass, which corresponds approximately to the molecular mass of the inhibitor, indicates that a covalent enzyme-inhibitor complex has been formed. Surface-enhanced laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis of a trypsin digest of AFEST treated with the inhibitor or not treated showed the occurrence of an increase in the molecular masses of the "GESAGG"-containing peptide, which is compatible with the formation of a covalent complex with the inhibitor.