Brothers in arms? Common and contrasting themes in pathogen perception by plant NB-LRR and animal NACHT-LRR proteins

Both plant and animal genomes encode proteins with nucleotide binding domains fused to leucine-rich repeat domains that are involved in responses to pathogens. While these domain structures are probably an example of convergent evolution, there are a number of similarities in the core mechanisms by which these proteins are regulated.     

The role of the maternal immune system in the regulation of human birthweight

Human birthweight is subject to stabilizing selection. Large babies are at risk of obstetric complications such as obstructed labour, which endangers both mother and child. Small babies are also at risk with reduced survival. Fetal growth requires remodelling of maternal spiral arteries to provide an adequate maternal blood supply to the placenta. This arterial transformation is achieved by placental trophoblast cells, which invade into the uterine wall. Under-invasion is associated with fetal growth restriction; but if invasion is excessive large babies can result. A growing body of evidence suggests that this process is controlled by interactions between killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) expressed on maternal uterine natural killer cells (uNK) and their corresponding human leukocyte antigen-C (HLA-C) ligands on invading trophoblast. Mothers with the KIR AA genotype and a fetus with a paternal HLA-C2 allele tend to have small babies, because this combination inhibits cytokine secretion by uNK. Mothers with the activating KIR2DS1 gene and an HLA-C2 fetus are more likely to have large babies. When KIR2DS1 binds to HLA-C2 this increases secretion of cytokines that enhance trophoblast invasion. We conclude that specific combinations of the highly polymorphic gene systems, KIR and HLA-C, contribute to successful reproduction by maintaining birthweight between two extremes.     

Discovery of novel P2Y14 agonist and antagonist using conventional and nonconventional methods

P2Y14 is a member of the pyrimidinergic GPCR family. UDP-Glc has been previously shown to activate human P2Y14, whereas UDP was unable to activate the receptor. In this study, the authors used conventional and nonconventional methods to further characterize P2Y14 and its ligands. Conventional calcium mobilization and nonconventional cellular impedance functional assays revealed that UMP and UDP selectively activated HEK cells coexpressing P2Y14 and Gα(qi5). In the impedance assays, the presence of exogenous Gα(qi5) resulted in agonist-induced Gq signaling, whereas in the absence of exogenous Gα(qi5), the signal was indicative of Gi. The authors established the first P2Y14 membrane filtration binding assay using a novel optimized expression vector and [(3)H]UDP as radioligand. UDP-Glc, UMP, and UDP dose dependently inhibited [(3)H]UDP binding in the binding assay, and saturation analysis revealed that UDP bound P2Y14 with a K(D) = 10 nM and a B(max) = 110 pmol/mg. The authors screened a phosphonate library and identified compound A, which inhibited UDP-Glc-mediated calcium signaling in the fluorometric imaging plate reader assay (IC(50) = 2.3 μM) and competed for [(3)H]UDP binding in the novel binding assay with a K(i) = 1280 nM.     

Additional morphological and physiological heterogeneity within the midgut of larval Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) revealed by histology, electrophysiology, and effects of Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin

Analysis of larval Aedes aegypti midgut using scanning electron microscopy, nuclear and mitochondrial dyes, response to Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis CryIVB toxin, and electrophysiology is described. The anterior ventriculus ("stomach") region is found to have much lower mitochondrial densities than other midgut regions. The transitional region is distinguished by apical surface architecture, and by region-specific effects of CryIVB endotoxin. In this region CryIVB causes holes ranging from 1.0 to 7.0 microm in diameter (mean 3.3+/-0.53 microm, N=12), blisters 16.9+/-1.54 microm in diameter (N=10), and separation of adjacent cells. The holes are not consistent with damage due to the colloid osmotic lysis model of delta-endotoxin activity. The posterior ventriculus possesses a distinctive cellular architecture consisting of hemispherical, domed apical membranes surrounded by deep clefts. Functional and morphological heterogeneity is revealed within the posterior ventriculus, with the anterior end dominating the electrical profile of isolated, perfused preparations and showing the greatest response to serotonin. Hyperpolarization of the transepithelial potential by serotonin occurred in conjunction with a decrease in the space constant lambda, ruling out closure of ion channels as the mechanism of action of serotonin.     

Distinct domains in the ARC region of the potato resistance protein Rx mediate LRR binding and inhibition of activation

Plant nucleotide binding and leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR) proteins contain a region of homology known as the ARC domain located between the NB and LRR domains. Structural modeling suggests that the ARC region can be subdivided into ARC1 and ARC2 domains. We have used the potato (Solanum tuberosum) Rx protein, which confers resistance to Potato virus X (PVX), to investigate the function of the ARC region. We demonstrate that the ARC1 domain is required for binding of the Rx N terminus to the LRR domain. Domain-swap experiments with Rx and a homologous disease resistance gene, Gpa2, showed that PVX recognition localized to the C-terminal half of the LRR domain. However, inappropriate pairings of LRR and ARC2 domains resulted in autoactive molecules. Thus, the ARC2 domain is required to condition an autoinhibited state in the absence of elicitor as well as for the subsequent elicitor-induced activation. Our data suggest that the ARC region, through its interaction with the LRR, translates elicitor-induced modulations of the C terminus into a signal initiation event. Furthermore, we demonstrate that physical disruption of the LRR-ARC interaction is not required for signal initiation. We propose instead that this activity can lead to multiple rounds of elicitor recognition, providing a means of signal amplification.