Letter: X-ray data for four crystalline forms of serum albumin

Cell dimensions, space groups and crystal densities are reported for a monoclinic form of human serum albumin (a = 126.5, b = 39.2, c = 135.2Å, β = 93.3 °, C2, Z = 4), tetragonal human serum albumin (a = 84.0, c = 276Å, P4₁2₁2, Z = 8), a mercury dimer of human serum albumin (a = 155, b = 83, c = 122Å, P2₁2₁2₁, Z = 4) and a hexagonal form of equine serum albumin (a = 96.6, c = 144.5Å, P6₁, Z = 6).     

A Comparison of the Energy Yield at the End User for M. x giganteus Using Two Different Harvesting and Transport Systems

A comparison between two different harvest systems for Miscanthus x giganteus crop (direct cut/chip and mow/bale) in terms of the net energy delivered to an end user, and the various energy costs and energy yields associated with each system was conducted. Only minor differences in terms of energy consumption were observed between the two harvest systems when all phases of the harvesting chain had been taken into account. Chip harvesting consumed 0.11 GJ?t^?1 compared with 0.13 GJ?t^?1 for bale harvesting. Chip transportation was considerably more expensive than bale transportation for a set distance of 50 km (0.18 and 0.11 GJ?t^?1 for chip and bale, respectively). Despite this, higher overall net energy yield was achieved by direct cutting and chipping the material. This was due to the higher proportion of harvestable energy lost in the field as a result of the use of a mowing/baling system. The overall net energy delivered in terms of harvestable material by the direct cut and chip system was 12.45 GJ?t^–1 compared with 11.78 GJ?t^?1 by the mow and bale system, making direct cut the more efficient system even up to a transport distance of 400 km. A sensitivity analysis indicated that the choice of transport system becomes more important for energy efficiency as transport distance increases.     

Single Cell Analysis of Lymph Node Tissue from HIV-1 Infected Patients Reveals that the Majority of CD4+ T-cells Contain One HIV-1 DNA Molecule

Genetic recombination contributes to the diversity of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). Productive HIV-1 recombination is, however, dependent on both the number of HIV-1 genomes per infected cell and the genetic relationship between these viral genomes. A detailed analysis of the number of proviruses and their genetic relationship in infected cells isolated from peripheral blood and tissue compartments is therefore important for understanding HIV-1 recombination, genetic diversity and the dynamics of HIV-1 infection. To address these issues, we used a previously developed single-cell sequencing technique to quantify and genetically characterize individual HIV-1 DNA molecules from single cells in lymph node tissue and peripheral blood. Analysis of memory and naïve CD4⁺ T cells from paired lymph node and peripheral blood samples from five untreated chronically infected patients revealed that the majority of these HIV-1-infected cells (>90%) contain only one copy of HIV-1 DNA, implying a limited potential for productive recombination in virus produced by these cells in these two compartments. Phylogenetic analysis revealed genetic similarity of HIV-1 DNA in memory and naïve CD4⁺ T-cells from lymph node, peripheral blood and HIV-1 RNA from plasma, implying exchange of virus and/or infected cells between these compartments in untreated chronic infection.     

The effect of harvest date and harvest method on the combustion characteristics of Miscanthus × giganteus

Miscanthus × giganteus is an energy crop with many attributes that make it a potential biofuel feedstock. This study examined the chemical composition of M. × giganteus stems cut at different dates throughout the spring harvest window (January, February and March) and either left in a swath or left flat in a thin layer on the ground and compared the composition to that of the standing crop collected on the same date in April (control). The research then examined the effect of cutting date on the chemical composition of whole plant M. × giganteus biomass (leaf and stem). The parameters examined in both parts of this experiment were lower heating value on a wet basis (LHV_WB), ash, chlorine, potassium, nitrogen, sulphur, carbon and hydrogen content. The range of values recorded for the parameters from both aspects of this trial were LHV_WB 4.84–11.87 MJ kg^?1; ash 1.44–1.97%; Cl 0.07–0.23%; K 0.15–0.32%; N 0.28–0.39%; S 0.13–0.19%; C 46.75–50.00%; H 5.76–6.09%. The length of time that the M. × giganteus remained in the field after cutting affected the LHV_WB (increased with time) of the stem biomass material. Cutting the biomass and leaving it in the field lowered the ash, Cl and C content of the stem material compared to that of the control which was cut and collected on the same date. No differences were observed for the other parameters. Date of harvest affected the LHV_WB, Cl and C content which all improved with later cutting dates. Thus, combustion quality can be improved by delaying the harvest date or by cutting the crop and leaving it in the field for a period prior to collection. Choosing the correct combination of time and harvest method can therefore improve biomass fuel quality.     

Stroma Cell-Derived Factor-1α Signaling Enhances Calcium Transients and Beating Frequency in Rat Neonatal Cardiomyocytes

Stroma cell-derived factor-1α (SDF-1α) is a cardioprotective chemokine, acting through its G-protein coupled receptor CXCR4. In experimental acute myocardial infarction, administration of SDF-1α induces an early improvement of systolic function which is difficult to explain solely by an anti-apoptotic and angiogenic effect. We wondered whether SDF-1α signaling might have direct effects on calcium transients and beating frequency.Primary rat neonatal cardiomyocytes were culture-expanded and characterized by immunofluorescence staining. Calcium sparks were studied by fluorescence microscopy after calcium loading with the Fluo-4 acetoxymethyl ester sensor. The cardiomyocyte enriched cellular suspension expressed troponin I and CXCR4 but was vimentin negative. Addition of SDF-1α in the medium increased cytoplasmic calcium release. The calcium response was completely abolished by using a neutralizing anti-CXCR4 antibody and partially suppressed and delayed by preincubation with an inositol triphosphate receptor (IP₃R) blocker, but not with a ryanodine receptor (RyR) antagonist. Calcium fluxes induced by caffeine, a RyR agonist, were decreased by an IP₃R blocker. Treatment with forskolin or SDF-1α increased cardiomyocyte beating frequency and their effects were additive. In vivo, treatment with SDF-1α increased left ventricular dP/dtmax.These results suggest that in rat neonatal cardiomyocytes, the SDF-1α/CXCR4 signaling increases calcium transients in an IP₃-gated fashion leading to a positive chronotropic and inotropic effect.     

Bacteriophages in dairy products: pros and cons

Since the time bacteriophages were first identified as a major cause of fermentation failure in the dairy industry, researchers have been struggling to develop strategies to exclude them from the dairy environment. Over 70 years of research has led to huge improvements in the consistency and quality of fermented dairy products, while also facilitating an appreciation of the beneficial properties of bacteriophages with respect to dairy product development. With specific reference to Lactococcus lactis and cheese production, this review outlines some recently reported novel methods aimed at limiting the bacteriophage infection as well as highlighting some beneficial aspects of bacteriophage activity.     

Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome with defective Fas: genotype influences penetrance

Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS) is a disorder of lymphocyte homeostasis and immunological tolerance. Most patients have a heterozygous mutation in the APT1 gene, which encodes Fas (CD95, APO-1), mediator of an apoptotic pathway crucial to lymphocyte homeostasis. Of 17 unique APT1 mutations in unrelated ALPS probands, 12 (71%) occurred in exons 7-9, which encode the intracellular portion of Fas. In vitro, activated lymphocytes from all 17 patients showed apoptotic defects when exposed to an anti-Fas agonist monoclonal antibody. Similar defects were found in a Fas-negative cell line transfected with cDNAs bearing each of the mutations. In cotransfection experiments, Fas constructs with either intra- or extracellular mutations caused dominant inhibition of apoptosis mediated by wild-type Fas. Two missense Fas variants, not restricted to patients with ALPS, were identified. Variant A(-1)T at the Fas signal-sequence cleavage site, which mediates apoptosis less well than wild-type Fas and is partially inhibitory, was present in 13% of African American alleles. Among the ALPS-associated Fas mutants, dominant inhibition of apoptosis was much more pronounced in mutants affecting the intracellular, versus extracellular, portion of the Fas receptor. Mutations causing disruption of the intracellular Fas death domain also showed a higher penetrance of ALPS phenotype features in mutation-bearing relatives. Significant ALPS-related morbidity occurred in 44% of relatives with intracellular mutations, versus 0% of relatives with extracellular mutations. Thus, the location of mutations within APT1 strongly influences the development and the severity of ALPS.