Methamphetamine exposure during brain development alters the brain acetylcholine system in adolescent mice

Children exposed to methamphetamine during brain development as a result of maternal drug use have long-term hippocampus-dependent cognitive impairments, but the mechanisms underlying these impairments are not understood. The acetylcholine system plays an important role in cognitive function and potential methamphetamine-induced acetylcholine alterations may be related to methamphetamine-induced cognitive impairments. In this study, we investigated the potential long-term effects of methamphetamine exposure during hippocampal development on the acetylcholine system in adolescence mice on postnatal day 30 and in adult mice on postnatal day 90. Methamphetamine exposure increased the density of acetylcholine neurons in regions of the basal forebrain and the area occupied by acetylcholine axons in the hippocampus in adolescent female mice. In contrast, methamphetamine exposure did not affect the density of GABA cells or total neurons in the basal forebrain. Methamphetamine exposure also increased the number of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the hippocampus of adolescent male and female mice. Our results demonstrate for the first time that methamphetamine exposure during hippocampal development affects the acetylcholine system in adolescent mice and that these changes are more profound in females than males.     

Soluble cytokine receptors (sIL-2Rα, sIL-2Rβ) induce subunit-specific behavioral responses and accumulate in the cerebral cortex and basal forebrain

Soluble cytokine receptors are normal constituents of body fluids that regulate peripheral cytokine and lymphoid activity. Levels of soluble IL-2 receptors (sIL-2R) are elevated in psychiatric disorders linked with autoimmune processes, including ones in which repetitive stereotypic behaviors and motor disturbances are present. However, there is no evidence that sIL-2Rs (or any peripheral soluble receptor) induce such behavioral changes, or that they localize in relevant brain regions. Here, we determined in male Balb/c mice the effects of single peripheral injections of sIL-2Rα or sIL-2Rβ (0-2 μg/male Balb/c mouse; s.c.) on novelty-induced ambulatory activity and stereotypic motor behaviors. We discovered that sIL-2Rα increased the incidence of in-place stereotypic motor behaviors, including head up head bobbing, rearing/sniffing, turning, and grooming behavior. A wider spectrum of behavioral changes was evident in sIL-2Rβ-treated mice, including increases in vertical and horizontal ambulatory activity and stereotypic motor movements. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that soluble receptors induce such behavioral disturbances. In contrast, soluble IL-1 Type-1 receptors (0-4 μg, s.c.) didn't appreciably affect these behaviors. We further demonstrated that sIL-2Rα and sIL-2Rβ induced marked increases in c-Fos in caudate-putamen, nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex. Anatomical specificity was supported by the presence of increased activity in lateral caudate in sIL-2Rα treated mice, while sIL-2Rβ treated mice induced greater c-Fos activity in prepyriform cortex. Moreover, injected sIL-2Rs were widely distributed in regions that showed increased c-Fos expression. Thus, sIL-2Rα and sIL-2Rβ induce marked subunit- and soluble cytokine receptor-specific behavioral disturbances, which included increases in the expression of ambulatory activity and stereotypic motor behaviors, while inducing increased neuronal activity localized to cortex and striatum. These findings suggest that sIL-2Rs act as novel immune-to- brain messengers and raise the possibility that they contribute to the disease process in psychiatric disorders in which marked increases in these receptors have been reported.     

Mommy, kiss it and make it well: saliva reconsidered-some reflections on alloantisepsis

Human saliva is a two-edged sword. The mouth can infect, and it can also heal. Saliva is a component of the immune system. Many antibacterial factors as well as digestive enzymes are present in sputum, and oxidizing agents abet oral defense mechanisms. The biological equilibrium of the mouth enhances its antimicrobial environment. Saliva cleans the wound by lavage, promoting healing while protecting injured tissues. Awareness of both the adverse and salubrious effects of sputum should inform the treatment of wounds with oral contact.     

Spectral fingerprints of large-scale neuronal interactions

Cognition results from interactions among functionally specialized but widely distributed brain regions; however, neuroscience has so far largely focused on characterizing the function of individual brain regions and neurons therein. Here we discuss recent studies that have instead investigated the interactions between brain regions during cognitive processes by assessing correlations between neuronal oscillations in different regions of the primate cerebral cortex. These studies have opened a new window onto the large-scale circuit mechanisms underlying sensorimotor decision-making and top-down attention. We propose that frequency-specific neuronal correlations in large-scale cortical networks may be 'fingerprints' of canonical neuronal computations underlying cognitive processes.     

Probing the structure of 16 S ribosomal RNA from Bacillus brevis

A majority (approximately 89%) of the nucleotide sequence of Bacillus brevis 16 S rRNA has been determined by a combination of RNA sequencing methods. Several experimental approaches have been used to probe its structure, including (a) partial RNase digestion of 30 S ribosomal subunits, followed by two-dimensional native/denatured gel electrophoresis, in which base-paired fragments were directly identified; (b) identification of positions susceptible to cleavage by RNase A and RNase T1 in 30 S subunits; (c) sites of attack by cobra venom RNase on naked 16 S rRNA; and (d) nucleotides susceptible to attack by bisulfite in 16 S rRNA. These data are discussed with respect to a secondary structure model for B. brevis 16 S rRNA derived by comparative sequence analysis.     

Study of sleep in a walrus

Several behavioral and physiological adaptations have been developed in evolution of Pinnipeds allowing them to sleep both on land and in water. To date sleep has been examined in detail in eared and true seals (the families of Otariidae and Phocidae). The aim of this study was to examine sleep in another semiaquatic mammal — the walrus, which is the only extant representative of the family Odobenidae. Slow wave and paradoxical sleep (SWS and PS) in the examined walrus (2 year old female, weight 130 kg) averaged 19.4 ± 2.0 and 6.9 ± 1.1% of 24-h when on land, and 20.5 ± 0.8% of 24-h and 1.1 ± 0.6% when in water, respectively. The average duration of PS episode was 6.4 ± 0.6 min (maximum 23 min) when on land and 1.8 ± 0.1 min (maximum 3.3 min) when in water. In water, sleep occurred predominantly while the walrus submerged and lay on the bottom of the pool (89% of total sleep time). The walrus usually woke up while emerging to the surface for breathing. Most often EEG slow waves developed synchronously in both cortical hemispheres (90% of SWS time when on land and 97% when in water). Short episodes of interhemispheric EEG asymmetry usually coincided with brief opening of one eye. The pattern of sleep in the walrus was similar to the pattern of sleep in the Otariidae seals while on land (predominantly bilateral SWS, accompanied by regular breathing) and to the pattern of sleep in the Phocidae while in water (sleep during apneas both in depth and at the surface, interrupted by brief arousal when emerging for breathing).     

The discovery of an Antarctic epipelagic medusan in the Mediterranean

A single specimen of the Antarctic anthomedusan Russellia mirabilisKramp 1957 has recently been collected in the AlboránSea. This is the first record for an Antarctic epipelagic organismin the Mediterranean Sea. Transport in the ballast water ofa cargo ship seems the most plausible mechanism for explainingthis rare occurrence. However, an alternative hypothesis isexplored involving a possibly complex medusan life cycle togetherwith the role of Antarctic (Intermediate and Bottom) water asdispersal mechanisms.     

The effects of stress on cortical bone thickness in rodents

The right and left femora of three groups of rodents, cold stressed, noise stressed, and heat stressed, were sectioned transversely at the most inferior point of the third trochanter. Cortical bone thickness of the proximal section for all three groups was determined by measuring an enlargement obtained with a Wild stereo microscope with a camera lucida drawing attachment. Cold stressed animals were found to have significantly thinner cortical bone than did controls, noise stressed animals did not differ from controls, and heat stressed animals had thinner cortical bone than did controls. It is concluded that stress may be responsible for the thinner cortex of cold and heat stressed animals, but that other factors may be at work and that it is not possible to tell whether different types of stress act through the same or through different mechanisms.