Factors influencing the sporulation and cyst formation of Aphanomyces invadans, etiological agent of ulcerative mycosis in Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus

Oomycete infections caused by Aphanomyces invadans occur in freshwater and estuarine fishes around the world. Along the east coast of the USA, skin ulcers caused by A. invadans are prevalent in Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus. From laboratory observations low salinities appear crucial to transmission of the pathogen. To better understand aspects of transmission, we characterized sporulation and cyst formation of secondary zoospores of two isolates of A. invadans at different salinities and temperatures. Sporulation occurred only at low salinities. At room temperature (ca. 20-22 C), using "pond water" augmented with artificial sea salts, the endemic strain WIC and the Thailand strain PA7 of A. invadans produced free-swimming secondary zoospores at salinities of 0, 1 and 2 psu (practical salinity unit = per thousand), but not at 4 psu or higher. Secondary zoospores of another species, ATCC-62427 (Aphanomyces sp.), were observed at 1, 2, 4 and 8 psu but not at 0 and 12 psu. Secondary zoospores of all three isolates, especially WIC, were abundant and motile 1-2 d postsporulation. Sporulation was temperature dependent and occurred over a relatively narrow range. No sporulation occurred at 4, 30 or 35 C for either WIC or PA7. For both strains zoospore production within 1-3 d after the initiation of sporulation was more prolific at 25 C than at 20 and 15 C. At 15 C production of zoospores was sustained over 11 d for WIC and 5 d for PA7. At room temperature single WIC secondary zoospores remained motile 12-18 h. Salinities exceeding 4 psu or vigorous shaking caused immediate cyst formation of WIC secondary zoospores. Exposure to menhaden tissue, but not tissues of other fishes to secondary zoospores (WIC), caused rapid (2 h) cyst formation. Cysts were capable of excysting when transferred to 1 psu water within 2-3 h of cyst formation. Cysts that had remained encysted in 6.5 psu for 24 h did not excyst when transferred to 1 psu water. Salinity and temperature requirements for sporulation indicate that juvenile menhaden must acquire infections during rain or in low salinity oligohaline waters.     

Automated measurement of cell motility and proliferation

Background

Time-lapse microscopic imaging provides a powerful approach for following changes in cell phenotype over time. Visible responses of whole cells can yield insight into functional changes that underlie physiological processes in health and disease. For example, features of cell motility accompany molecular changes that are central to the immune response, to carcinogenesis and metastasis, to wound healing and tissue regeneration, and to the myriad developmental processes that generate an organism. Previously reported image processing methods for motility analysis required custom viewing devices and manual interactions that may introduce bias, that slow throughput, and that constrain the scope of experiments in terms of the number of treatment variables, time period of observation, replication and statistical options. Here we describe a fully automated system in which images are acquired 24/7 from 384 well plates and are automatically processed to yield high-content motility and morphological data.

Results

We have applied this technology to study the effects of different extracellular matrix compounds on human osteoblast-like cell lines to explore functional changes that may underlie processes involved in bone formation and maintenance. We show dose-response and kinetic data for induction of increased motility by laminin and collagen type I without significant effects on growth rate. Differential motility response was evident within 4 hours of plating cells; long-term responses differed depending upon cell type and surface coating. Average velocities were increased approximately 0.1 um/min by ten-fold increases in laminin coating concentration in some cases. Comparison with manual tracking demonstrated the accuracy of the automated method and highlighted the comparative imprecision of human tracking for analysis of cell motility data. Quality statistics are reported that associate with stage noise, interference by non-cell objects, and uncertainty in the outlining and positioning of cells by automated image analysis. Exponential growth, as monitored by total cell area, did not linearly correlate with absolute cell number, but proved valuable for selection of reliable tracking data and for disclosing between-experiment variations in cell growth.

Conclusion

These results demonstrate the applicability of a system that uses fully automated image acquisition and analysis to study cell motility and growth. Cellular motility response is determined in an unbiased and comparatively high throughput manner. Abundant ancillary data provide opportunities for uniform filtering according to criteria that select for biological relevance and for providing insight into features of system performance. Data quality measures have been developed that can serve as a basis for the design and quality control of experiments that are facilitated by automation and the 384 well plate format. This system is applicable to large-scale studies such as drug screening and research into effects of complex combinations of factors and matrices on cell phenotype.     

Introductory biology courses: a framework to support active learning in large enrollment introductory science courses

Active learning and research-oriented activities have been increasingly used in smaller, specialized science courses. Application of this type of scientific teaching to large enrollment introductory courses has been, however, a major challenge. The general microbiology lecture/laboratory course described has been designed to incorporate published active-learning methods. Three major case studies are used as platforms for active learning. Themes from case studies are integrated into lectures and laboratory experiments, and in class and online discussions and assignments. Students are stimulated to apply facts to problem-solving and to learn research skills such as data analysis, writing, and working in teams. This course is feasible only because of its organizational framework that makes use of teaching teams (made up of faculty, graduate assistants, and undergraduate assistants) and Web-based technology. Technology is a mode of communication, but also a system of course management. The relevance of this model to other biology courses led to assessment and evaluation, including an analysis of student responses to the new course, class performance, a university course evaluation, and retention of course learning. The results are indicative of an increase in student engagement in research-oriented activities and an appreciation of real-world context by students.     

Preferential transmission of paternal alleles at risk genes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Family, twin, and adoption studies have demonstrated a significant genetic contribution to the etiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Pharmacological, neuroimaging, and animal-model findings suggest imbalances in monoaminergic (dopaminergic, serotonergic, and noradrenergic) neurotransmission in ADHD. We have examined monoaminergic candidate genes for possible genetic association with ADHD in the Irish population, focusing particularly on genes of the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems. We have observed that several of these genes are associated with ADHD, including DAT1, DBH, DRD4, DRD5, and 5HT1B. Here, we present what appears to be a systematic overtransmission of paternal alleles at candidate genes associated with ADHD. For the nine genes included in the analysis, the overall odds ratio for paternal transmission was 2, compared with 1.3 for maternal transmission (paternal vs. maternal chi 2=9.6; P=.0019). Transmission to females, from either parent, was significantly stronger than to males. Possible reasons for this preferential transmission include imprinting and ascertainment bias, although results of further analyses show that the latter is unlikely.     

Mandibular premolar and second molar root morphological variation in modern humans: What root number can tell us about tooth morphogenesis

This investigation of modern human mandibular premolar root variation tests the hypothesis that population-specific mandibular single-rooted premolar root size can predict a predisposition to root morphological complexity. Mandibular postcanines were examined and quantified from dental radiographs in a globally spread sample of 1,615 modern humans. Multirooted premolars and a fused molar root phenotype were investigated as probes into greater than, and less than, the normative root number. Twelve questions were addressed concerning root structure of mandibular premolars and second molars. A direct correlation was found between single-rooted mandibular premolar size and the predisposition to multirootedness. This correlation infers the following: 1) that postcanine primordia size during root formation predisposes to the development of more, or less, than the normative postcanine root number; and 2) that the epigenetic effect of tooth primordium size per se influences the induction of interradicular processes, which divides the root during its development. This simple developmental model helps explain the following observations: 1) population-specific variation in postcanine root number; 2) sexual dimorphism for multirooted mandibular premolar prevalence; 3) why microdont teeth are single-rooted; 4) the hierarchy of developmental canalization of interradicular processes; 5) megadont-hominin to late-hominin mandibular premolar root number transition; and 6) the fluctuation of mandibular premolar root number in primate evolutionary history.     

Iron nitrosyl hemoglobin formation from the reaction of hydroxylamine and hemoglobin under physiological conditions

Sickle cell disease patients receiving hydroxyurea (HU) therapy have shown increases in the production of nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, which include iron nitrosyl hemoglobin (HbNO), nitrite, and nitrate. However, the exact mechanism by which HU forms HbNO in vivo is not understood. Previous studies indicate that the reaction of oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) or deoxyhemoglobin (deoxyHb) with HU are too slow to account for in vivo HbNO production. In this study, we show that the reaction of methemoglobin (metHb) with HU to form HbNO could potentially be fast enough to account for in vivo HbNO formation but competing reactions of either excess oxyHb or deoxyHb during the reaction reduces the likelihood that HbNO will be produced from the metHb-HU reaction. Using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy we have detected measurable amounts of HbNO and metHb during the reactions of oxyHb, deoxyHb, and metHb with excess hydroxylamine (HA). We also demonstrate HbNO and metHb formation from the reactions of excess oxyHb, deoxyHb, or metHb and HA, conditions that are more likely to mimic those in vivo. These results indicate that the reaction of hydroxylamine with hemoglobin produces HbNO and lend chemical support for a potential role for hydroxylamine in the in vivo metabolism of hydroxyurea.     

Hypertonic Saline Attenuates Colonic Tumor Cell Metastatic Potential by Activating Transmembrane Sodium Conductance

Hypertonic saline (HTS) suppresses tumor cell-endothelial interactions by reducing integrin expression. This translates into reduced adhesion, migration and metastatic potential. This study determined the relative contributions of hyperosmolarity and sodium-specific hypertonicity on the inhibitory effects of HTS, the intracellular pH and sodium responses to HTS and the role of cytoskeletal remodeling in these changes. Human colonic tumor cells (LS174T) were exposed to lipopolysaccharide under isotonic, hypertonic, sodium-free (N-methyl- D-glucamine), hyperosmolar (mannitol or urea), disrupted cytoskeletal (10 μg/ml cytochalasin D) conditions or in the presence of 5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl)amiloride (EIPA). β₁ integrin expression was measured flow-cytometrically. Intracellular sodium and pH were measured with confocal laser microscopic imaging. Statistical analysis was performed with analysis of variance, and P < 0.05 was considered significant. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. Hypertonic exposure attenuated integrin expression (62.03 ± 4.7% of control, P < 0.04). No discernible effect was observed with sodium-free or hyperosmolar solutions. HTS evoked a cellular alkalinization (by a mean 0.2 pH units) and an increase in cytosolic sodium concentration (by a mean 12.4 mM, P < 0.001) via upregulation of sodium-hydrogen exchange. Disassembly of actin microfilaments by cytochalasin D and antiporter inhibition with EIPA abrogated the effect of hypertonicity on integrin expression and intracellular sodium and pH (P < 0.05). HTS downregulates adhesion molecule expression via a hypertonic, sodium-specific, cytoskeletally mediated mechanism that involves activation of sodium-hydrogen exchange with associated changes in intracellular pH and sodium concentrations.     

SLiMDisc: short, linear motif discovery, correcting for common evolutionary descent

Many important interactions of proteins are facilitated by short, linear motifs (SLiMs) within a protein's primary sequence. Our aim was to establish robust methods for discovering putative functional motifs. The strongest evidence for such motifs is obtained when the same motifs occur in unrelated proteins, evolving by convergence. In practise, searches for such motifs are often swamped by motifs shared in related proteins that are identical by descent. Prediction of motifs among sets of biologically related proteins, including those both with and without detectable similarity, were made using the TEIRESIAS algorithm. The number of motif occurrences arising through common evolutionary descent were normalized based on treatment of BLAST local alignments. Motifs were ranked according to a score derived from the product of the normalized number of occurrences and the information content. The method was shown to significantly outperform methods that do not discount evolutionary relatedness, when applied to known SLiMs from a subset of the eukaryotic linear motif (ELM) database. An implementation of Multiple Spanning Tree weighting outperformed two other weighting schemes, in a variety of settings.