Including competitive asymmetry in measures of local interference in plant populations

Summary Although considerable evidence exists that plant competition is generally asymmetric or one-sided, with larger plants having a disproportionate competitive effect on smaller plants, currently employed measures of local interference generally assume that competition is two-sided. We describe a simple measure of competitive asymmetry in which the effects of neighbors smaller than a focal individual are discounted by a constant factor, and include this variable in a composite measure of local interference. In this model competition varies between complete asymmetry (the effects of smaller plants are entirely discounted) and complete symmetry (the competitive effect of a neighbor is proportional to its size). The proposed method is applied to two natural populations and one experimental monoculture. In all cases an asymmetric model provides the best fit to the data. Completely two-sided models account for 26–39% of the variance in relative growth rate, while relatively one-sided models account for 44–57%. The increases in r ² values resulting from the inclusion of asymmetry are significant in the two cases in which the data permit randomization tests. Our results suggest that interference is completely asymmetric in a population of Impatiens pallida, a species with very low root allocation and a shallow crown, and somewhat less asymmetric in an experimental monoculture of Ambrosia artemisiifolia and a natural stand of Pinus rigida, cases in which competition for water and nutrient resources is likely to be of greater importance.     

Plant Proteinase inhibitors: A defense against herbivorous insects?

Using the tomato plant, Lycopersicon esculentum L., and the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), we have demonstrated that insect herbivory induces a rapid decline in plant quality. This decline in plant quality manifests itself by a highly significant reduction in rate of larval growth on a medium containing foliage from insect-damaged as opposed to undamaged tomato plants. The induction of tomato proteinase inhibitors, as a result of larval feeding, is invoked as a factor that systemically reduces leaf quality.

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Zusammenfassung Eine zentrale Theorie in der Erforschung von Insekten-Wirtspflanzen-Wechselbeziehungen ist, dass sich bestimmte natürlich vorkommende Pflanzeninhaltsstoffe in Pflanzen zur Abwehr herbivorer Insekten und anderer Parasiten entwickelt haben. Zur Zeit herrschende Überlegungen beinhalten auch das Konzept, dass herbivore Insekten das Potential besitzen, Veränderungen in der Abwehrund/oder Nahrungsqualität von Wirtspflanzen hervorzurufen, die den herbivoren Insekten schaden. Gegenwärtig is nur wenig über die Ursachen dieser von Insekten induzierten Veränderungen der Wirtspflanzenqualität bekannt. Jedoch werden häufig unterschiedliche Gehalte der Pflanzen an Phenolderivaten, Protein und/oder Proteinaseinhibitoren mit den Abwehrmechanismen in Zusammenhang gebracht. Diese Arbeit untersucht das Potential von Pflanzenproteinaseinhibitoren, als induzierbare Abwehr gegen herbivore Noctuidenlarven zu wirken.Tomatenpflanzen enthalten Proteinaseinhibitoren (PIs), die durch Verletzen der Pflanze induziert werden. Es besteht die Hypothese, dass diese Synthese von PIs einen Abwehrmechanismus gegen blattfressende Insekten darstellt. Diese Hypothese ist niemals angemessen in planta getestet worden und wird von uns anhand von Spodoptera exigua und Tomatenpflanzen, Lycopersicon esculentum, getestet.Wieterhin sollte festgestellt werden, ob eine Beziehung zwischen der PI-Konzentration im Blatt und dem Wachstum von Blattmaterial fressenden Larven besteht. Anstelle lebender Pflanzen wurde dazu eine feste, Blattmaterial enthaltende Diät (15% gefriergetrocknetes Blattmaterial angemischt in Agarlösung und Sorbinsäure) benutzt, was die Verwending einer unverletzten Kontrolle ermöglichte. Diese künstliche Diät wurde S. exigua angeboten. Die Ergebnisse des Fütterungsversuches (Fig. 2) zeigen, dass eine signifikante inverse Beziehung (r²=0.81, p=0.05) zwischen der PI-Konzentration im Blattgewebe und den mittleren Gewichten von Larven von S. exigua besteht. Nicht dargestellt ist die nicht signifikante Korrelation zwischen mittlerem Gewicht der Larven und den Gehalten an Blattprotein (r²=0.47, p>0.25) und Phenolderivaten (r²=0.50, p=0.25).Diese Ergebnisse veranlassen uns zu dem Rückschluss, dass Tomatenproteinaseinhibitoren als systemisch induzierbare antibiotische chemische Abwehr gegen herbivore Insekten wie Noctuidenlarven anzusehen sind, und dass PIs einen Faktor darstellen, der zur systemischen Reduktion der Blattqualität von Tomaten führt.

     

Optical acquisition and polar decomposition of the full-field deformation gradient tensor within a fracture callus

Tracking tissue deformation is often hampered by material inhomogeneity, so local measurements tend to be insufficient thus lending to the necessity of full-field optical measurements. This study presents a novel approach to factoring heterogeneous deformation of soft and hard tissues in a fracture callus by introducing an anisotropic metric derived from the deformation gradient tensor (F). The deformation gradient tensor contains all the information available in a Green–Lagrange strain tensor, plus the rigid-body rotational components. A recent study [Bottlang et al., Journal of Biomechanics 41(3), 2008] produced full-field strains within ovine fracture calluses acquired through the application of electronic speckle pattern interferometery (ESPI). The technique is based on infinitesimal strain approximation (Engineering Strain) whose scheme is not independent of rigid-body rotation. In this work, for rotation extraction, the stretch and rotation tensors were separately determined from F by the polar decomposition theorem. Interfragmentary motions in a fracture gap were characterized by the two distinct mechanical factors (stretch and rotation) at each material point through full-field mapping. In the composite nature of bone and soft tissue, collagen arrangements are hypothesized such that fibers locally aligned with principal directions will stretch and fibers not aligned with the principal direction will rotate and stretch. This approach has revealed the deformation gradient tensor as an appropriate quantification of strain within callus bony and fibrous tissue via optical measurements.     

More genes or more taxa? The relative contribution of gene number and taxon number to phylogenetic accuracy

The relative contribution of taxon number and gene number to accuracy in phylogenetic inference is a major issue in phylogenetics and of central importance to the choice of experimental strategies for the successful reconstruction of a broad sketch of the tree of life. Maximization of the number of taxa sampled is the strategy favored by most phylogeneticists, although its necessity remains the subject of debate. Vast increases in gene number are now possible due to advances in genomics, but large numbers of genes will be available for only modest numbers of taxa, raising the question of whether such genome-scale phylogenies will be robust to the addition of taxa. To examine the relative benefit of increasing taxon number or gene number to phylogenetic accuracy, we have developed an assay that utilizes the symmetric difference tree distance as a measure of phylogenetic accuracy. We have applied this assay to a genome-scale data matrix containing 106 genes from 14 yeast species. Our results show that increasing taxon number correlates with a slight decrease in phylogenetic accuracy. In contrast, increasing gene number has a significant positive effect on phylogenetic accuracy. Analyses of an additional taxon-rich data matrix from the same yeast clade show that taxon number does not have a significant effect on phylogenetic accuracy. The positive effect of gene number and the lack of effect of taxon number on phylogenetic accuracy are also corroborated by analyses of two data matrices from mammals and angiosperm plants, respectively. We conclude that, for typical data sets, the number of genes utilized may be a more important determinant of phylogenetic accuracy than taxon number.     

Hemagglutinin-33 of type A botulinum neurotoxin complex binds with synaptotagmin II

Botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A), the most toxic substance known to mankind, is produced by Clostridium botulinum type A as a complex with a group of neurotoxin-associated proteins (NAPs) through polycistronic expression of a clustered group of genes. NAPs are known to protect BoNT against adverse environmental conditions and proteolytic digestion. Hemagglutinin-33 (Hn-33) is a 33 kDa subcomponent of NAPs that is resistant to protease digestion, a feature likely to be involved in the protection of the botulinum neurotoxin from proteolysis. However, it is not known whether Hn-33 plays any role other than the protection of BoNT. Using immunoaffinity column chromatography and pull-down assays, we have now discovered that Hn-33 binds to synaptotagmin II, the putative receptor of botulinum neurotoxin. This finding provides important information relevant to the design of novel anti-botulism therapeutic agents targeted to block the entry of botulinum neurotoxin into nerve cells.