Topography of the E site on the Escherichia coli ribosome.

Three photoreactive tRNA probes have been utilized in order to identify ribosomal components that are in contact with the aminoacyl acceptor end and the anticodon loop of tRNA bound to the E site of Escherichia coli ribosomes. Two of the probes were derivatives of E. coli tRNA(Phe) in which adenosines at positions 73 and 76 were replaced by 2-azidoadenosine. The third probe was derived from yeast tRNA(Phe) by substituting wyosine at position 37 with 2-azidoadenosine. Despite the modifications, all of the photoreactive tRNA species were able to bind to the E site of E. coli ribosomes programmed with poly(A) and, upon irradiation, formed covalent adducts with the ribosomal subunits. The tRNA(Phe) probes modified at or near the 3' terminus exclusively labeled protein L33 in the 50S subunit. The tRNA(Phe) derivative containing 2-azidoadenosine within the anticodon loop became cross-linked to protein S11 as well as to a segment of the 16S rRNA encompassing the 3'-terminal 30 nucleotides. We have located the two extremities of the E site-bound tRNA on the ribosomal subunits according to the positions of L33, S11 and the 3' end of 16S rRNA defined by immune electron microscopy. Our results demonstrate conclusively that the E site is topographically distinct from either the P site or the A site, and that it is located alongside the P site as expected for the tRNA exit site.     

Polymorphic tandem repeat region in interleukin-1α intron 6

Analysis of polymerase chain reaction amplified products from the sixth intron of the human interleukin-1 gene reveals a high polymorphism (polymorphism information content = 0.51) in a Caucasian population. Altogether, seven alleles have been defined ranging from 620 to 1220bp. This polymorphism is probably attributable to a variable number of 46-bp tandem repeats, each containing potential regulatory sequences.     

Seagrass ecosystem multifunctionality under the rise of a flagship marine megaherbivore

Large grazers (megaherbivores) have a profound impact on ecosystem functioning. However, how ecosystem multifunctionality is affected by changes in megaherbivore populations remains poorly understood. Understanding the total impact on ecosystem multifunctionality requires an integrative ecosystem approach, which is especially challenging to obtain in marine systems. We assessed the effects of experimentally simulated grazing intensity scenarios on ecosystem functions and multifunctionality in a tropical Caribbean seagrass ecosystem. As a model, we selected a key marine megaherbivore, the green turtle, whose ecological role is rapidly unfolding in numerous foraging areas where populations are recovering through conservation after centuries of decline, with an increase in recorded overgrazing episodes. To quantify the effects, we employed a novel integrated index of seagrass ecosystem multifunctionality based upon multiple, well-recognized measures of seagrass ecosystem functions that reflect ecosystem services. Experiments revealed that intermediate turtle grazing resulted in the highest rates of nutrient cycling and carbon storage, while sediment stabilization, decomposition rates, epifauna richness, and fish biomass are highest in the absence of turtle grazing. In contrast, intense grazing resulted in disproportionally large effects on ecosystem functions and a collapse of multifunctionality. These results imply that (i) the return of a megaherbivore can exert strong effects on coastal ecosystem functions and multifunctionality, (ii) conservation efforts that are skewed toward megaherbivores, but ignore their key drivers like predators or habitat, will likely result in overgrazing-induced loss of multifunctionality, and (iii) the multifunctionality index shows great potential as a quantitative tool to assess ecosystem performance. Considerable and rapid alterations in megaherbivore abundance (both through extinction and conservation) cause an imbalance in ecosystem functioning and substantially alter or even compromise ecosystem services that help to negate global change effects. An integrative ecosystem approach in environmental management is urgently required to protect and enhance ecosystem multifunctionality.     

Conformity in mate choice,the overlooked social component of animal and human culture

Although conformity as a major driver for human cultural evolution is a well-accepted and intensely studied phenomenon, its importance for non-human animal culture has been largely overlooked until recently. This limited for decades the possibility of studying the roots of human culture. Here, we provide a historical review of the study of conformity in both humans and non-human animals. We identify gaps in knowledge and propose an evolutionary route towards the sophisticated cultural processes that characterize humanity. A landmark in the study of conformity is Solomon Asch's famous experiment on humans in 1955. By contrast, interest in conformity among evolutionary biologists has only become salient since the turn of the new millennium. A striking result of our review is that, although studies of conformity have examined many biological contexts, only one looked at mate choice. This is surprising because mate choice is probably the only context in which conformity has self-reinforcing advantages across generations. Within a metapopulation, i.e. a group of subpopulations connected by dispersing individuals, dispersers able to conform to the local preference for a given type of mate have a strong and multigenerational fitness advantage. This is because once females within one subpopulation locally show a bias for one type of males, immigrant females who do not conform to the local trend have sons, grandsons, etc. of the non-preferred phenotype, which negatively and cumulatively affects fitness over generations in a process reminiscent of the Fisher runaway process. This led us to suggest a sex-driven origin of conformity, indicating a possible evolutionary route towards animal and human culture that is rooted in the basic, and thus ancient, social constraints acting on mating preferences within a metapopulation. In a generic model, we show that dispersal among subpopulations within a metapopulation can effectively maintain independent Fisher runaway processes within subpopulations, while favouring the evolution of social learning and conformity at the metapopulation scale; both being essential for the evolution of long-lasting local traditions. The proposed evolutionary route to social learning and conformity casts surprising light on one of the major processes that much later participated in making us human. We further highlight several research avenues to define the spectrum of conformity better, and to account for its complexity. Future studies of conformity should incorporate experimental manipulation of group majority. We also encourage the study of potential links between conformity and mate copying, animal aggregations, and collective actions. Moreover, validation of the sex-driven origin of conformity will rest on the capacity of human and evolutionary sciences to investigate jointly the origin of social learning and conformity. This constitutes a stimulating common agenda and militates for a rapprochement between these two currently largely independent research areas.     

Sensitive Detection of the Leaching-out from Membrane-surrounded Compartments: a New Approach Explored with Cells and Tissues of Nicotiana tabacum L.

In search of a simple method for testing the very early events of ozone damage to susceptible plants as well as complete destruction after threshold-exceeding treatments an over-all measurement of cell ingredients by their optical density in the UVB and UVC range was investigated. The cell particles were liberated after membrane permeabilization or after cell bursting. Uncontrolled results could be excluded. Furthermore, the results of the developed spectrophotometrical test could be, in the case of tissue samples (leaf discs), very well reproduced with an osmometrical measurement. The latter was less sensitive and not suitable for cellular samples because the protoplasts must be dissolved in a nearly isotonic medium which caused too large a background for this method but not for the UVS test. Contrary to the osmometric measurement, the photometric one cannot be used for determining the absolute amount of cell ingredients but only for relative measurement between samples in a given range of concentrations. Oxidative changes of the liberated ingredients do not influence their detection, which was demonstrated with ascorbate. The developed leaching test was also useful for determining the membrane damage caused by the detergent Triton X-100, although this was known to have UV absorbance by itself. It was noted that the far UV maximum is not only caused by absorbance and scattering is discussed as an additional explanation.     

Occurrence ofBacillus popilliae and two nematode pathogens in populations ofAmphimallon solstitialis (Col.: Scarabaeidae) near darmstadt,Germany

Populations of the June beetle,Amphimallon solstitialis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), were sampled from grasslands near Darmstadt, Germany, and found to be infected by a number of diseases and parasitic nematodes. Several milky diseased larvac were found, andBacillus popilliae type A 1 isolated as the causative agent. The bacterium readily infected healthy larvae ofA. solstitialis when administeredper os in the laboratory, but was not infective to larvae ofMelolontha hippocastani by this route. A large mermithid nematode was found parasitising 10% of theA. solstitialis larvae at one site andHeterorhabditis bacteriophora was found infecting larvae at the other.

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Résumé Des populations deAmphimallon solstitialis (Col.: Scarabaeidae) ont été échantillonnées dans deux prairies distinctes près de Darmstadt (Allemagne) et se sont révélées infestées par des maladies et des nématodes parasites. Plusieurs larves dans chaque site étaient infectées par la maladie laiteuse etBacillus popillae, type A1 a été isolé comme étant l'agent responsable. La bactérie infeste facilement des larves saines deA. solstitialis quand elle est administrée par voie orale au laboratoire mais n'a pas d'effet infectieux pour les larves deMelolontha hippocastani par cette même voie. Un grand nématode mermithide a été trouvé parasite de 10% des larves deA. solstitialis sur un seul site, mais comme seuls les jeunes ont été trouvés, la détermination à l'espèce n'a pu être faite.Heterorhabditis bacteriophora était responsable de l'infection de 1,5% des larves sur seulement un site. Plusieurs larves deA. solstitialis présentaient une couleur ambrée, identique à celle trouvée sur le scarabéeCostelytra zealandica infecté parSerratia spp., et ne se nourrissaient pas de carotte au laboratoire. Les bactéries isolées à partir de ces larves ne provoquent aucun effet visible quand elles sont données en nourriture à des larves saines.