Open reading frames carried on UL/b' are implicated in shedding and horizontal transmission of rhesus cytomegalovirus in rhesus monkeys

Implicit with the use of animal models to test human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) vaccines is the assumption that the viral challenge of vaccinated animals reflects the anticipated virus-host interactions following exposure of vaccinated humans to HCMV. Variables of animal vaccine studies include the route of exposure to and the titer of challenge virus, as well as the genomic coding content of the challenge virus. This study was initiated to provide a better context for conducting vaccine trials with nonhuman primates by determining whether the in vivo phenotype of culture-passaged strains of rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) is comparable to that of wild-type RhCMV (RhCMV-WT), particularly in relation to the shedding of virus into bodily fluids and the potential for horizontal transmission. Results of this study demonstrate that two strains containing a full-length UL/b' region of the RhCMV genome, which encodes proteins involved in epithelial tropism and immune evasion, were persistently shed in large amounts in bodily fluids and horizontally transmitted, whereas a strain lacking a complete UL/b' region was not shed or transmitted to cagemates. Shedding patterns exhibited by strains encoding a complete UL/b' region were consistent with patterns observed in naturally infected monkeys, the majority of whom persistently shed high levels of virus in saliva for extended periods of time after seroconversion. Frequent viral shedding contributed to a high rate of infection, with RhCMV-infected monkeys transmitting virus to one na?ve animal every 7 weeks after introduction of RhCMV-WT into an uninfected cohort. These results demonstrate that the RhCMV model can be designed to rigorously reflect the challenges facing HCMV vaccine trials, particularly those related to horizontal transmission.     

Lack of Nucleotide Sequence Relationship Among the Temperate Bacteriophage SPO2, Bacillus subtilis, and Virulent Bacteriophages β3 and β22

Radiolabeled phage SPO2 fragments were tested for the abiity to form interspecies deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) duplexes with DNA from Bacillus subtilis and from phages beta3 and beta22. No reassociation, above control values, occurred between the DNA of phage SPO2 and that of its host or either of the virulent B. subtilis phages. It appears that extensive nucleotide sequence similarities between portions of host and phage DNA species are not necessary for the formation of the lysogenic state. The thermal elution profile of reassociated SPO2 DNA exhibited a normal distribution, indicating no heterogeneity in base composition. This differs from temperate enterophages whose DNA molecules contain regions of differing base composition.     

Studies on the Oyster Community in Delaware: The Effects of the Estuarine Environment on the Associated Fauna

The purpose of this study was to determine the composition of the associated fauna of Delaware's oyster beds. Moreover the relative position of Delaware's oyster producing tributaries lends itself to testing the classic hypothesis concerning the effect of salinity on faunal distribution. Interaction of substrate was also studied. The local oyster beds are termed the bay beds which include planted and natural populations, and the river beds. From 1967 to 1971 approximately 800 samples have been collected and the majority of these were from the bay beds. In 1968 and 1969, 132 samples were systematically collected from the river beds and 19 from the bay beds. These were returned to the laboratory for special care in identification. Samples from fouling panels and oyster rafts provided additional species. 152 species were identified but only 133 species were statistically analysed because they were from the systematic collections. Nonparametric statistics were used. In order to facilitate analysis the top 23 species were selected for special treatment. In order of decreasing frequency of occurrence the species were: Sabellaria vulgaris, Conopeum tenuissimum, Panopeus herbsti, Nereis succinea, Palaemonetes vulgaris, Crassostrea virginica, Nassarius obsoletus, Polydora websteri, Membranipora tenuis, Garveia fransiscana, Bulanus improvisus, Diadumene leucolena, Aiptasiomorpha luciae, Melita nitida, Obelia longicyatha, Alcyonidium polyoum, Sertularia argentea, Crangon septemspinosa, Hydroides dianthus, Eurypanopeus depressus, Modiolus demissus, Parapleustes sp., and Hartlaubella gelatinosa. The diversity of species decreases up the estuary with decreasing salinity. Substrate can alter this pattern in particular cases. Within a given salinity range the presence of any firm substrate or mud influenced the nature of the community from epifaunal to infaunal. Four faunal units were recognized: the planted and natural beds, the four southern rivers, the Leipsic River, the Woodland Beach area. The Leipsic River area marks a critical transition zone with a rapid reduction in species. North of Woodland Beach brackish water conditions begin to prevail. The fauna was more diverse in late spring than in the fall but seasonality was not as marked as expected. The faunal composition of Delaware's oyster beds agrees with the cosmopolitan view of estuaries. The stability — time hypothesis proposed by SANDERS provides a theoretical basis to explain faunal distributions in Delaware's oyster community. The hardy nature and geologic history of this oyster community makes it a likely candidate as a sensitive indicator of environmental degradation in the estuary.     

Probing Mitotic CENP-E Kinesin with the Tethered Cargo Motion Assay and Laser Tweezers

Coiled-coil stalks of various kinesins differ significantly in predicted length and structure; this is an adaption that helps these motors carry out their specialized functions. However, little is known about the dynamic stalk configuration in moving motors. To gain insight into the conformational properties of the transporting motors, we developed a theoretical model to predict Brownian motion of a microbead tethered to the tail of a single, freely walking molecule. This approach, which we call the tethered cargo motion (TCM) assay, provides an accurate measure of the mechanical properties of motor-cargo tethering, verified using kinesin-1 conjugated to a microbead via DNA links in vitro. Applying the TCM assay to the mitotic kinesin CENP-E unexpectedly revealed that when walking along a microtubule track, this highly elongated molecule with a contour length of 230 nm formed a 20-nm-long tether. The stalk of a walking CENP-E could not be extended fully by application of sideways force with optical tweezers (up to 4 pN), implying that CENP-E carries its cargo in a compact configuration. Assisting force applied along the microtubule track accelerates CENP-E walking, but this increase does not depend on the presence of the CENP-E stalk. Our results suggest that the unusually large stalk of CENP-E has little role in regulating its function as a transporter. The adjustable stalk configuration may represent a regulatory mechanism for controlling the physical reach between kinetochore-bound CENP-E and spindle microtubules, or it may assist localizing various kinetochore regulators in the immediate vicinity of the kinetochore-embedded microtubule ends. The TCM assay and underlying theoretical framework will provide a general guide for determining the dynamic configurations of various molecular motors moving along their tracks, freely or under force.     

Deep-Sea Polychaetous Annelida from Central America to the Antarctic Peninsula and South Sandwich Islands

Based on the 1958 Vema cruise and the 1965 Anton Bruun cruise 11 off the west coast of Central America and south through the islands east of the tip of South America, 143 trawl samples were examined for abyssal polychaetous annelida. The cruise tracks designated 7 major areas: Central America (1), Ecuador-Peru (II), Central and Southern Chile (III), Chile and the Magellan Strait (IV), Tierra del Fuego (V), the Island Complex (Falkland, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands) (VI), the Drake Strait and Antarctic Peninsula (VII). The collections yielded 7,015 individuals and 322 species from 52 families. The relatively small number of species was attributed mainly to sampling effort, collecting gear and processing techniques. Each major area was characterized in terms of the number of individuals, the number of species, mean number of individuals, mean number of species and mean H′, SR, J′ and DI. Species diversity was significantly higher in Central America (I) than in the other areas. The relationships between biotic and abiotic measures (depth and areas of upwelling) were examined. There were no significant associations for the entire data base with depth. Moreover, there was no association between abundance of polychaetes and areas of upwelling which was hypothesized. In fact, relative abundance was highest in the deepest portions of Central America (I) (Guatemala Basin) and Ecuador—Peru (II) (Milne—Edwards Deep) compared to shallower areas closer to areas of upwelling. Quantitative collecting gear and refined processing techniques will be required to more accurately address these relationships. Dominant families were identified in terms of number of species and number of individuals. These families conformed well with world wide generalizations of dominant families. Dominant species were identified based on the Biological Index Value. The top twenty or dominant species for each major area were identified. A number of these dominant species occurred widely throughout the major areas. The dominant species for the entire data set were determined. In general these species were very eurybathic which was consistent with other worldwide depth distributions of abyssal polychaetes. Based on biotic measures (mean number of species, mean H', SR, J′ and DI) and the Simpson and Dice similarity co-efficients, several zoogeographic patterns emerged. The polychaete fauna from Central America (I) to southern Chile (II) formed a relatively homogeneous group. Polychaetes from Central America (I) had affinities with faunas studied off western Mexiko. The Chile and Magellan Strait (IV) area seemed to be a transition area which yielded to another relatively homogeneous fauna comprising areas V—VII. The latter fauna belonged to an Antarctic polychaete fauna which was documented earlier in other studies with a larger data base and more sophisticated analysis. It is hoped that the present study will help to provide a start to fill the zoogeographic gap of this enormous and bathymetrically diverse area.     

Com Yield Increases Relative to Nonfumigant Chemical Control of Nematodes

Corn yields were measured after application of nematicides in 16 experiments, mostly in medium-to-heavily textured soil, at 12 locations in Iowa during 1973-1976. The average maximum yield increase in plots treated with nematicides was 21% over yields in untreated plots. Yields were correlated negatively with nematode numbers or nematode biomass in nearly all comparisons. Correlations of nematode numbers in the soil with yield averaged -0.56 for Helicotylenchus pseudorobustus, -0.45 for Hoplolaimus galeatus, -0.51 for Pratylenchus spp., and -0.64 for Xiphinema americanum. Correlation coefficients for numbers of nematodes in the roots and yield averaged -0.63 for Pratylenchus spp. and -0.56 H. galeatus. Correlation coefficients for yield and total number of nematodes averaged -0.65 in roots and -0.55 in soils. Negative correlations also were greater for comparisons of yield with total parasitic-nematode biomass than with numbers of individual nematodes of a species or total numbers of parasitic nematodes.     

Whole Genome Analyses of Marine Fish Pathogenic Isolate,Mycobacterium sp. 012931

Mycobacterium is a genus within the order Actinomycetales that comprises of a large number of well-characterized species, several of which includes pathogens known to cause serious disease in human and animal. Here, we report the whole genome sequence of Mycobacterium sp. strain 012931 isolated from the marine fish, yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata). Mycobacterium sp. 012931 is a fish pathogen causing serious damage to aquaculture farms in Japan. DNA dot plot analysis showed that Mycobacterium sp. 012931 was more closely related to Mycobacterium marinum when compared across several Mycobacterium species. However, little conservation of the gene order was observed between Mycobacterium sp. 012931 and M. marinum genome. The annotated 5,464 genes of Mycobacterium sp. 012931 was classified into 26 subsystems. The insertion/deletion gene analysis shows Mycobacterium sp. 012931 had 643 unique genes that were not found in the M. marinum strains. In the virulence, disease, and defense subsystem, both insertion and deletion genes of Mycobacterium sp. 012931 were associated with the PPE gene cluster of Mycobacteria. Of seven plcB genes in Mycobacterium sp. 012931, plcB_2 and plcB_3 showed low identities with those of M. marinum strains. Therefore, Mycobacterium sp. 012931 has differences on genetic and virulence from M. marinum and may induce different interaction mechanisms between host and pathogen.     

Soil carbon changes under Miscanthus driven by C4 accumulation and C3 decompostion – toward a default sequestration function

Bioenergy has to meet increasing sustainability criteria in the EU putting conventional bioenergy crops under pressure. Alternatively, perennial bioenergy crops, such as Miscanthus, show higher greenhouse gas savings with similarly high energy yields. In addition, Miscanthus plantations may sequester additional soil organic carbon (SOC) to mitigate climate change. As the land‐use change in cropland to Miscanthus involves a C₃‐C₄ vegetation change (VC), it is possible to determine the dynamic of Miscanthus‐derived SOC (C₄ carbon) and of the old SOC (C₃ carbon) by the isotopic ratio of ¹³C to ¹²C. We sampled six croplands and adjacent Miscanthus plantations exceeding the age of 10 years across Europe. We found a mean C₄ carbon sequestration rate of 0.78 ± 0.19 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1, which increased with mean annual temperature. At three of six sites, we found a significant increase in C₃ carbon due to the application of organic fertilizers or difference in baseline SOC, which we define as non‐VC‐induced SOC changes. The Rothamsted Carbon Model was used to disentangle the decomposition of old C₃ carbon and the non‐VC‐induced C₃ carbon changes. Subsequently, this method was applied to eight more sites from the literature, resulting in a climate‐dependent VC‐induced SOC sequestration rate (0.40 ± 0.20 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1), as a step toward a default SOC change function for Miscanthus plantations on former croplands in Europe. Furthermore, we conducted a SOC fractionation to assess qualitative SOC changes and the incorporation of C₄ carbon into the soil. Sixteen years after Miscanthus establishment, 68% of the particulate organic matter (POM) was Miscanthus‐derived in 0–10 cm depth. POM was thus the fastest cycling SOC fraction with a C₄ carbon accumulation rate of 0.33 ± 0.05 Mg ha^?1 yr^?1. Miscanthus‐derived SOC also entered the NaOCl‐resistant fraction, comprising 12% in 0–10 cm, which indicates that this fraction was not an inert SOC pool.     

Allometric deviations of plasma carotenoids in raptors

Because large species ingest proportionally less food than small ones, it may be predicted that they should incorporate relatively fewer carotenoids to a proportionally equal volume of blood. However, some species may increase their levels of circulating carotenoids by ingesting unusual food. We tested whether the plasma concentration of carotenoids scales to the three‐quarter power of mass in nine predatory and scavenger raptor species. No significant allometric relationships were found due to the unusually high concentrations of carotenoids in the Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus and the Andean condor Vultur gryphus. To assess whether these two species deviate from the allometric rule through the exploitation of unusual sources of carotenoids, or due to a physiological adaptation to improve the uptake of carotenoids, we determined allometric patterns in individuals of these two species kept in captivity with an exclusive diet of flesh. Our results provided support for the allometric rule because the slope of the allometric equation did not differ from a three‐quarter exponent when carotenoid levels of the two outliers were replaced by those of captive birds. This adjustment to the allometric rule suggests a lack of any physiological adaptation to improve the uptake of the low concentrations of carotenoids contained in flesh. Differences between species in carotenoid incorporation into the bloodstream may be ultimately due to contrasting evolutionary history, physiology and associated colour‐signalling strategies, but proximately due to the acquisition of these micronutrients from both usual and unusual dietary sources.