The P2X7 receptor: a key player in IL-1 processing and release

Human IL-1 family proteins are key mediators of the host response to infections, injury, and immunologic challenges. The mechanism by which IL-1 activates proinflammatory responses in target cells, and the plasma membrane receptors involved, is fairly well known. This has led to the development of innovative drugs that block IL-1 downstream to its synthesis and secretion. On the contrary, the mechanism of IL-1 and other IL-1 family members (e.g., IL-18) maturation and release is incompletely understood. Accruing evidence points to a plasma membrane receptor for extracellular ATP, the P2X(7) receptor, as a key player in both processes. A deeper understanding of the mechanism by which the P2X(7) receptor triggers IL-1 maturation and exteriorization may suggest novel avenues for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and provide a deeper insight in the fundamental mechanism of protease activation and cellular export of proteins lacking a leader sequence.     

First identification of a chemotactic receptor in an invertebrate species: structural and functional characterization of Ciona intestinalis C3a receptor

In mammals, the bioactive fragment C3a, released from C3 during complement activation, is a potent mediator of inflammatory reactions and exerts its functional activity through the specific binding to cell surface G protein-coupled seven-transmembrane receptors. Recently, we demonstrated a Ciona intestinalis C3a (CiC3a)-mediated chemotaxis of hemocytes in the deuterostome invertebrate Ciona intestinalis and suggested an important role for this molecule in inflammatory processes. In the present work, we have cloned and characterized the receptor molecule involved in the CiC3a-mediated chemotaxis and studied its expression profile. The sequence, encoding a 95,394 Da seven-transmembrane domain protein, shows the highest sequence homology with mammalian C3aRs. Northern blot analysis revealed that the CiC3aR is expressed abundantly in the heart and neural complex and to a lesser extent in the ovaries, hemocytes, and larvae. Three polyclonal Abs raised in rabbits against peptides corresponding to CiC3aR regions of the first and second extracellular loop and of the third intracellular loop react specifically in Western blotting with a single band of 98-102 kDa in hemocyte protein extracts. Immunostaining performed on circulating hemocytes with the three specific Abs revealed that CiC3aR is constitutively expressed only in hyaline and granular amoebocytes. In chemotaxis experiments, the Abs against the first and second extracellular loop inhibited directional migration of hemocytes toward the synthetic peptide reproducing the CiC3a C-terminal sequence, thus providing the compelling evidence that C. intestinalis expresses a functional C3aR homologous to the mammalian receptor. These findings further elucidate the evolutionary origin of the vertebrate complement-mediated proinflammatory process.     

Translation initiation factor IF2 interacts with the 30 S ribosomal subunit via two separate binding sites

The functional properties of the two natural forms of Escherichia coli translation initiation factor IF2 (IF2alpha and IF2beta) and of an N-terminal deletion mutant of the factor (IF2DeltaN) lacking the first 294 residues, corresponding to the entire N-terminal domain, were analysed comparatively. The results revealed that IF2alpha and IF2beta display almost indistinguishable properties, whereas IF2DeltaN, although fully active in all steps of the translation initiation pathway, displays functional activities having properties and requirements distinctly different from those of the intact molecule. Indeed, binding of IF2DeltaN to the 30 S subunit, IF2DeltaN-dependent stimulation of fMet-tRNA binding to the ribosome and of initiation dipeptide formation strongly depend upon the presence of IF1 and GTP, unlike with IF2alpha and IF2beta. The present results indicate that, using two separate active sites, IF2 establishes two interactions with the 30 S ribosomal subunit which have different properties and functions. The first site, located in the N domain of IF2, is responsible for a high-affinity interaction which "anchors" the factor to the subunit while the second site, mainly located in the beta-barrel module homologous to domain II of EF-G and EF-Tu, is responsible for the functional ("core") interaction of IF2 leading to the decoding of fMet-tRNA in the 30 S subunit P-site. The first interaction is functionally dispensable, sensitive to ionic-strength variations and essentially insensitive to the nature of the guanosine nucleotide ligand and to the presence of IF1, unlike the second interaction which strongly depends upon the presence of IF1 and GTP.     

XHas2 activity is required during somitogenesis and precursor cell migration in Xenopus development

In vertebrates, hyaluronan biosynthesis is regulated by three transmembrane catalytic enzymes denoted Has1, Has2 and Has3. We have previously cloned the Xenopus orthologues of the corresponding genes and defined their spatiotemporal distribution during development. During mammalian embryogenesis, Has2 activity is known to be crucial, as its abrogation in mice leads to early embryonic lethality. Here, we show that, in Xenopus, morpholino-mediated loss-of-function of XHas2 alters somitogenesis by causing a disruption of the metameric somitic pattern and leads to a defective myogenesis. In the absence of XHas2, early myoblasts underwent apoptosis, failing to complete their muscle differentiation programme. XHas2 activity is also required for migration of hypaxial muscle cells and trunk neural crest cells (NCC). To approach the mechanism whereby loss of HA, following XHas2 knockdown, could influence somitogenesis and precursor cell migration, we cloned the orthologue of the primary HA signalling receptor CD44 and addressed its function through an analogous knockdown approach. Loss of XCD44 did not disturb somitogenesis, but strongly impaired hypaxial muscle precursor cell migration and the subsequent formation of the ventral body wall musculature. In contrast to XHas2, loss of function of XCD44 did not seem to be essential for trunk NCC migration, suggesting that the HA dependence of NCC movement was rather associated with an altered macromolecular composition of the ECM structuring the cells' migratory pathways. The presented results, extend our knowledge on Has2 function and, for the first time, demonstrate a developmental role for CD44 in vertebrates. On the whole, these data underlie and confirm the emerging importance of cell-ECM interactions and modulation during embryonic development.     

A specific short dextrin-hydrolyzing extracellular glucosidase from the thermophilic fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus 179-5

The thermophilic fungus Thermoascus aurantiacus 179-5 produced large quantities of a glucosidase which preferentially hydrolyzed maltose over starch. Enzyme production was high in submerged fermentation, with a maximal activity of 30 U/ml after 336 h of fermentation. In solid-state fermentation, the activity of the enzyme was 22 U/ml at 144 h in medium containing wheat bran and 5.8 U/ml at 48 h when cassava pulp was used as the culture medium. The enzyme was specific for maltose, very slowly hydrolyzed starch, dextrins (2-7G) and the synthetic substrate (alpha-PNPG), and did not hydrolyze sucrose. These properties suggest that the enzyme is a type II alpha-glucosidase. The optimum temperature of the enzyme was 70 degrees . In addition, the enzyme was highly thermostable (100% stability for 10 h at 60 degrees and a half-life of 15 min at 80 degrees), and stable within a wide pH range.     

Paracoccin, a GlcNAc-binding lectin from Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, binds to laminin and induces TNF-alpha production by macrophages

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis components interact with host cells and can influence the pathogenesis of paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM). Among the components released by P. brasiliensis, gp 43 and a heavily glycosylated antigen with MM>160 kDa are the most recognized by serum antibodies from patients with PCM. In order to isolate the high MM glycoconjugate, we carried out affinity chromatography of a crude exoantigen preparation on immobilized jacalin. The bound fraction (JBE, jacalin binding exoantigen) consisted of a major antigen of high MM and frequently of an additional 70-kDa minor protein. This protein, designated paracoccin, exhibited selective binding to immobilized GlcNAc, a property that was used for its purification. The structural data of paracoccin obtained by mass spectrometry of tryptic peptides did not match any known protein. Anti-paracoccin serum localized the lectin on the surface of P. brasiliensis yeasts, especially in the budding regions. Paracoccin was able to interact with laminin in a dose-dependent manner. This interaction was inhibited by GlcNAc, followed by D-glucose and D-mannose, but not by D-galactose, N-acetyl-galactosamine or L-fucose. Interestingly, paracoccin induced both resident and elicited mouse peritoneal cavity macrophages to release high and persistent levels of TNF-alpha in vitro, a fact that was associated with high nitric oxide production in elicited cells. Because binding to laminin can favor yeast adhesion and invasion of host tissues, and overproduction of NO has been associated with suppression of cell immunity, paracoccin is suggested to play an important role in PCM pathogenesis.     

Candida albicans isolates with different genomic backgrounds display a differential response to macrophage infection

Few human pathogens possess the ability exhibited by Candida albicans to colonize and cause symptomatic infections at different body sites. The host immune system is the major factor determining whether this opportunistic yeast behaves as a commensal or as a pathogen, since C. albicans strains appear capable of expressing similar virulence factors in response to specific body-district cues. This report provides evidence showing that C. albicans isolates with diverse genomic backgrounds (b and c karyotypes) differently modulate their pathogenic potential when assayed in cocultures with human monocytic derived macrophages (THP-1 cells). Striking differences were observed in the ability to undergo bud-hypha transition, a relevant C. albicans virulence factor, between b and c karyotypes (P<0.0001) upon their internalization by macrophages. All c types were able to develop hyphal forms, resist intracellular killing, replicate, and escape from macrophages. The b type isolates, which were shown to be more efficiently ingested by THP-1 cells than the c type strains (P=0.013), were susceptible to intracellular killing and predominantly found as blastoconidia inside macrophages. Despite their different intracellular disposition, both b and c type isolates were equally able to undergo morphogenesis and to express NRG1 and HWP1 genes, markers of the bud-hypha transition program, during in vitro propagation. Since macrophages play a critical role in the host resistance to C. albicans, the different response of b and c isolates to macrophage infection suggests that the c type strains are better suited to behave as a more virulent strain cluster.     

Iron corrolates: unambiguous chloroiron(III) (corrolate)(2-.) pi-cation radicals

The structures, electron configurations, magnetic susceptibilities, spectroscopic properties, molecular orbital energies and spin density distributions, redox properties and reactivities of iron corrolates having chloride, phenyl, pyridine, NO and other ligands are reviewed. It is shown that with one very strong donor ligand such as phenyl anion the electron configuration of the metal is d(4)S=1 Fe(IV) coordinated to a (corrolate)(3-) anion, while with one weaker donor ligand such as chloride or other halide, the electron configuration is d(5)S=3/2 Fe(III) coordinated to a (corrolate)(2-.) pi-cation radical, with antiferromagnetic coupling between the metal and corrolate radical electron. Many of these complexes have been studied by electrochemical techniques and have rich redox reactivity, in most cases involving two 1-electron oxidations and two 1-electron reductions, and it is not possible to tell, from the shapes of cyclic voltammetric waves, whether the electron is added or removed from the metal or the macrocycle; often infrared, UV-Vis, or EPR spectroscopy can provide this information. (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopic methods are most useful in delineating the spin state and pattern of spin density distribution of the complexes listed above, as would also be expected to be the case for the recently-reported formal Fe(V)O corrolate, if this complex were stable enough for characterization by NMR spectroscopy. Iron, manganese and chromium corrolates can be oxidized by iodosylbenzene and other common oxidants used previously with metalloporphyrinates to effect efficient oxidation of substrates. Whether the "resting state" form of these complexes, most generally in the case of iron [FeCl(Corr)], actually has the electron configuration Fe(IV)(Corr)(3-) or Fe(III)(Corr)(2-.) is not relevant to the high-valent reactivity of the complex.     

Photosynthesis research in Italy: a review

This historical review was compiled and edited by Giorgio Forti, whereas the other authors of the different sections are listed alphabetically after his name, below the title of the paper; they are also listed in the individual sections. This review deals with the research on photosynthesis performed in several Italian laboratories during the last 50 years; it includes research done, in collaboration, at several international laboratories, particularly USA, UK, Switzerland, Hungary, Germany, France, Finland, Denmark, and Austria. Wherever pertinent, references are provided, especially to other historical papers in Govindjee et al. [Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (eds) (2005) Discoveries in Photosynthesis. Springer, Dordrecht]. This paper covers the physical and chemical events starting with the absorption of a quantum of light by a pigment molecule to the conversion of the radiation energy into the stable chemical forms of the reducing power and of ATP. It describes the work done on the structure, function and regulation of the photosynthetic apparatus in higher plants, unicellular algae and␣in photosynthetic bacteria. Phenomena such as photoinhibition and the protection from it are also included. Research in biophysics of photosynthesis in Padova (Italy) is discussed by G.M. Giacometti and G.␣Giacometti (2006).     

Site-directed gene replacement of the phytopathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri

In this work we defined experimental conditions for site-directed gene replacement of the Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), an economically relevant pathogen of citrus plants. The procedure involved, first, optimizing the electrotransformation conditions of the Xac 306 strain and, second, constructing non-replicative suicide vectors carrying knockout copies of the target gene. Using specific experimental conditions, transformation efficiencies of Xac were at least 100 fold higher than those achieved with electroporation protocols previously designed for X. campestris transformation. Successful gene replacement events were achieved with a suicide vector derived from R6K plasmid (pWR-SS) but not with those with ColE1 replication origin. We have chosen the oppA as a target gene, encoding the binding component (OppA) of the major oligopeptide uptake system found in the genome of the Xac 306 strain, although not in X. campestris pv. campestris (Xcc). Defining the experimental conditions, which allow for the specific mutagenesis of the Xac 306 strain, represents a step in the understanding of both genetics and physiology of this economically important bacterial species.