Impact of Chlorine and Heat on the Survival of Hartmannella vermiformis and Subsequent Growth of Legionella pneumophila

Hartmannella vermiformis, a common amoebal inhabitant of potable-water systems, supports intracellular multiplication of Legionella pneumophila and is probably important in the transportation and amplification of legionellae within these systems. To provide a practical guide for decontamination of potable-water systems, we assessed the chlorine and heat resistance of H. vermiformis. H. vermiformis cysts and trophozoites were treated independently with chlorine at concentrations of 2.0 to 10.0 ppm for 30 min and then cocultured with L. pneumophila. Both cysts and trophozoites were sensitive to concentrations between 2.0 and 4.0 ppm and above (trophozoites somewhat more so than cysts), and 10.0 ppm was lethal to both forms. Hartmannellae treated with chlorine up to a concentration of 4.0 ppm supported the growth of legionellae. To determine whether heat would be an effective addendum to chlorine treatment of amoebae, hartmannellae were subjected to temperatures of 55 and 60°C for 30 min and alternatively to 50°C followed by treatment with chlorine at a concentration of 2 ppm. Fewer than 0.05% of the amoebae survived treatment at 55°C, and there were no survivors at 60°C. Pretreatment at 50°C appeared to make hartmannella cysts more susceptible to chlorine but did not further reduce the concentration of trophozoites.     

Characterization of Amylolytic Enzymes, Having Both α-1,4 and α-1,6 Hydrolytic Activity, from the Thermophilic Archaea Pyrococcus furiosus and Thermococcus litoralis

Extracellular pullulanases were purified from cell-free culture supernatants of the marine thermophilic archaea Thermococcus litoralis (optimal growth temperature, 90°C) and Pyrococcus furiosus (optimal growth temperature, 98°C). The molecular mass of the T. litoralis enzyme was estimated at 119,000 Da by electrophoresis, while the P. furiosus enzyme exhibited a molecular mass of 110,000 Da under the same conditions. Both enzymes tested positive for bound sugar by the periodic acid-Schiff technique and are therefore glycoproteins. The thermoactivity and thermostability of both enzymes were enhanced in the presence of 5 mM Ca²⁺, and under these conditions, enzyme activity could be measured at temperatures of up to 130 to 140°C. The addition of Ca²⁺ also affected substrate binding, as evidenced by a decrease in K_m for both enzymes when assayed in the presence of this metal. Each of these enzymes was able to hydrolyze, in addition to the α-1,6 linkages in pullulan, α-1,4 linkages in amylose and soluble starch. Neither enzyme possessed activity against maltohexaose or other smaller α-1,4-linked oligosaccharides. The enzymes from T. litoralis and P. furiosus appear to represent highly thermostable amylopullulanases, versions of which have been isolated from less-thermophilic organisms. The identification of these enzymes further defines the saccharide-metabolizing systems possessed by these two organisms.     

CHLOROPLAST DNA EVIDENCE FOR THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF TOMATOES,POTATOES, AND PEPINOS (SOLANACEAE)

We used chloroplast DNA restriction site analysis to test hypotheses of relationships of Solarium subgenus Potatoe (including potatoes and pepinos), two other Solanum, Cyphomandra (the tree tomatoes), and Lycopersicon (the tomatoes). Capsicum and Datura were used as outgroups. The results support two main clades among the taxa we studied: 1) Solanum subgenus Potatoe and Lycopersicon; and 2) other Solanum and Cyphomandra. Within the first clade, the following groups were supported: a) sect. Basarthrum and sect. Anarrhichomenum; b) sect. Etuberosum; c) sect. Petota; d) sect. Juglandifolium, including subsect. Lycopersicoides; and e) the genus Lycopersicon. These results, in combination with an analysis of morphological data, advocate the controversial, but previously suggested, treatment of Lycopersicon as congeneric with Solanum in subgenus Potatoe. Thus, the cultivated tomato will be recognized as Solanum lycopersicum L. Solanum chmielewskii and Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme are proposed as new combinations; Solanum neorickii is proposed as a new name for Lycopersicon parviflorum. Our data also suggest that Cyphomandra should be included within Solanum.     

MONOPHYLY OF ANEUPLOID ASTRAGALUS (FABACEAE): EVIDENCE FROM NUCLEAR RIBOSOMAL DNA INTERNAL TRANSCRIBED SPACER SEQUENCES

Evolutionary relationships within Astragalus L. (Fabaceae) were inferred from nucleotide sequence variation in nuclear ribosomal DNA of both New World and Old World species. The internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) of 18S–26S nuclear ribosomal DNA from representatives of 26 species of Astragalus, three species of Oxytropis DC., and two outgroup taxa were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction amplification and direct DNA sequencing. The length of the ITS 1 region within these taxa varied from 221 to 231 bp, while ITS 2 varied in length from 207 to 217 bp. Of the aligned, unambiguous positions, approximately 34% were variable in each spacer region. In pairwise comparisons among Astragalus species and outgroup taxa, sequence divergence at these sites ranged from 0 to 18.8% in ITS 1 and from 0 to 21.7% in ITS 2. Parsimony analyses of these sequences resulted in a well-resolved phylogeny that is highly concordant with previous cytogenetic and chloroplast DNA evidence for a major phylogenetic division in the genus. These data suggest that the New World aneuploid species of Astragalus form a monophyletic but morphologically cryptic group derived from euploid species of Old World (Eurasian) origin, which are consequently paraphyletic.     

Asparagine-135 of elongation factor Tu is a crucial residue for the folding of the guanine nucleotide binding pocket

This work studies the structure-function relationships of Asn¹³⁵, a residue situated in the GTP binding pocket of elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu). For this purpose we constructed EF-TuN135D/D138N and assayed its reactivity towards various purine nucleotides. We found that EF-TuN135D/D138N had no functional effect with GTP, ATP, XTP and isoGTP. The lack of a productive interaction with isoGTP shows that the Asn¹³⁵ side-chain does not recognize the exocyclic keto group of the guanine base. However, EF-TuN 135D/D 138N, whose native conformation is stabilized by either elongation factor Ts or kirromycin, was able to support the enzymatic binding of aa-tRNA to the ribosome in the absence of any nucleotide, when in complex with the antibiotic. Taken together, these results show that Asn¹³⁵ is important for the correct folding of the nucleotide binding site and that EF-Tu·kirromycin can mediate the binding of aa-tRNA to the mRNA-programmed ribosomes independently of the native conformation of this site.     

Phospholipase A2 inhibitors from marine algae

Twelve out of twenty-nine compounds isolated from benthic marine algae from the phyla Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta have been found to be potent inhibitors of bee venom derived phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂) (> 50%) in the M range. The compounds investigated were from: Bryopsis pennata, Rhipocephalus phoenix, Caulerpa prolifera, C. racemosa, C. bikinensis, Cymopolia barbata, Laurencia cf. palisada, Laurencia sp., Ochtodes crockeri, Liagora farinosa, Sphaerococcus coronipifolius, Phacelocarpus labillardieri, Dictyota sp., B furcaria galapagensis, Stypopodium zonale, Dictyopteris undulata, Stoechospermum marginatum, Dictyopteris divaricata, Dilophus fasciola and Dilophus sp. This is the first report of bee venom PLA₂ inhibition in vitro by pure compounds isolated from marine algae.     

Presence of anisotropic (birefringent) crystalline structures in embryonic and juvenile monogonont rotifers

A systematic survey for the presence of birefringent (anisotropic) structures in rotifers was undertaken. Several common features of rotifers exhibit anisotropism (e.g. trophi & muscles). However, unusual anisotropic crystalline structures (ACS) were found in late stage embryos (i.e. possessing eyespots and trophi, and showing movement). ACS were found in 18 of 26 species of monogonont rotifers (comprising 11 genera of 5 families). In Sinantherina socialis, ACS were present in the lower gut as compact, spherical masses of minute crystals that slowly broke apart and disappeared within 20 hours of hatching. Although several authors have described the existence of refractive bodies in rotifers, to my knowledge this is the first report of their birefringent properties.